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Cell culture techniques are fundamental to biomedical research, providing crucial insights into cellular functions, drug discovery, and disease mechanisms. A critical step in cell culture is the p

By Eoin Mac Réamoinn Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are renowned for their fundamental roles in innate sensing and initiating inflammatory responses. TLRs acco

Signal 1 tells a T cell what it is looking at; signal 2 tells it whether to care. The same peptide–MHC engagement that launches a productive effector response can just as easily install an anergy pro

Protocols · Western BlottingBoiling Proteins for Western BlottingHeating protein samples in SDS loading buffer denatures proteins and coats them in a uniform negative charge for clean SDS-PAGE s

The T-cell receptor is the most finely calibrated detector in immunology. It must discriminate an agonist peptide present at a few dozen copies from a self peptide present at tens of thousands, and i

NF-κB is not one pathway, it is two clocks running at different speeds. The canonical arm fires within minutes of TNF-α, IL-1β or LPS reaching the surface, peaks, and is switched off by feedback it e

A chimeric antigen receptor is a synthetic protein wired into a real signalling pathway. The extracellular half is an antibody fragment; everything below the membrane is borrowed from the T-cell rece

Interferons (IFNs) are a group of signalling proteins that are produced and released from cells in response to viral infection and other stimuli such as normal and tumour cell survival and

Double-stranded DNA in the cytosol is always a mistake. A virus has uncoated, a mitochondrion has ruptured, a micronucleus has burst, or a chromosome has been broken and left unrepaired. cGAS treats

PD-1 does not switch a T cell off; it moves the threshold. Engagement of PD-1 by PD-L1 recruits a single phosphatase into the immunological synapse, and that one recruitment event is enough to collap

Toll-Like Receptors The innate immune response has come under the spotlight in recent years due to its central role in propagating the pathogen