2311 results for 'TGF-β'

Transforming Growth Factor-Beta (TGF-β) signaling pathway plays a pivotal role in orchestrating various cellular processes, ranging from embryonic development to tissue homeostasis and immune resp

Almost all of the TGF-β in a tissue is already there, and almost none of it is active. That single fact reorganises how the pathway should be studied. Unlike most cytokines, TGF-β is deposited into t

Almost any inflammatory phenotype in a mouse can be assigned to a cytokine by taking that cytokine away. Neutralisation is the most direct causal test immunology has: inject a functional-grade antibo

The antigen tells a CD4 T cell to respond; the cytokine tells it what kind of response to make. A naive CD4⁺ T cell leaving the thymus is uncommitted. Within about seventy-two hours of engaging TCR/C

Regulatory T cells cannot make the cytokine they depend on. FOXP3 represses the Il2 locus, so every Treg lives on IL-2 secreted by the conventional T cells it exists to restrain. That asymmetry expla

Two drugs aimed at the same axis can give opposite results in the same disease. Blocking IL-23p19 is highly effective in psoriasis and works in Crohn’s disease. Blocking IL-17A directly is highly eff

Understanding the immune system's intricacies requires models that accurately reflect its complexity. The rat, as a model organism, plays a crucial role in immunological research, particularly in

Introduction Tumorigenesis, the process by which normal cells transform into cancer cells, is a multifaceted and complex event influenced by various internal and external factors. Among the

In the periphery, co-stimulation rescues a T cell. In the thymus, the same molecules kill it. A peripheral T cell that engages its receptor without CD80 and CD86 becomes anergic; engage them and it r

Anti-angiogenic therapy does not work by starving tumours, and the trials that assumed it did are the reason the field spent a decade disappointed. Cutting off the blood supply was the original pitch

Th17 cells, a subset of T helper cells characterized by their production of interleukin-17 (IL-17), play a significant role in the immune system's response to pathogens and in the pathology of au

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) play a crucial role in maintaining immune balance by suppressing excessive immune responses that could lead to tissue damage. However, in the context of cancer,

Quick Facts About AbituzumabWhat is Abituzumab?Abituzumab is a monoclonal antibody that targets αv-integrins, playing a role in cancer treatment and fibrotic diseases.What is the mechani

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CD4+ T cells are central to the immune system, functioning as coordinators of immune responses and regulators of immune tolerance. These cells are divided into two primary subtypes: Helpe

Not one immune cytokine on this pathway touches bone. TNF, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-17A all act on osteoblasts, osteocytes and synovial fibroblasts, and it is those stromal cells that decide between RANKL

A T cell does not choose which tissue to defend. The tissue chose it, during priming. A naive T cell has no tropism at all; it acquires one from the dendritic cell that activates it, and the instruct

What is a Macrophage? Macrophages are indeed a type of phagocyte, responsible for engulfing and destroying foreign particles and cellular debris. They are larger cells with more cytoplasm an

A macrophage does not decide to eat; it counts votes. Every particle it touches carries a mixture of pro-phagocytic and inhibitory ligands, and engulfment follows only when the activating tally clear

If your knockout showed a type 2 phenotype and you attributed it to Th2 cells, there is a reasonable chance you were looking at something else. Innate lymphoid cells run T-bet, GATA3 and RORγt — not

Two asthma biologics have opposite effects on the blood eosinophil count, and both of them work. Mepolizumab empties the eosinophil compartment; dupilumab can transiently raise it. If that seems cont

In the intricate ballet of cellular communication and regulation, growth factors play pivotal roles in guiding the processes of cell growth, division, and differentiation. These proteins are essen

Block one receptor and more than 90% of the microglia in a mouse brain are dead within a week. Not impaired — gone. Stop the block and they come back, repopulating from the survivors within another w

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Natural killer (NK) cells are a crucial component of the innate immune system and play a significant role in eliminating tumor cells. Unlike T cells, NK cells can recognize and kill cance

Cell Signalling · Growth FactorsGrowth Factors: Families, Receptors and Signalling PathwaysGrowth factors are secreted proteins that instruct cells whether to divide, differentiate, migrate or survive

T Cell Types, Activation, Polarization & Function A comprehensive guide to T cells! Introduction T-cells, vital components of the immune system, encompass vari

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Introduction to FoxP3 and Regulatory T Cells in CancerFoxP3 (forkhead box P3) is a transcription factor critical for the development and function of regulatory T cells (Tregs), a speciali

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Inflammasomes are complex intracellular structures that play a pivotal role in the immune response by detecting pathogenic microorganisms and sterile stressors. Their activation is a critical step

Toll-like receptors are the reason a milligram of endotoxin can kill a mouse. They are the fastest, least discriminating layer of immunity: germline-encoded sensors that read conserved microbial chem

The 2025 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine has been awarded to a trio of scientists for their groundbreaking work on peripheral immune tolerance, a mechanism that prevents our immune system from a

CD155 is read by four different receptors, and only one of them turns the killing programme on. The nectin and nectin-like ligands induced on stressed and transformed cells are simultaneously an acti

Microbiology · AntibioticsPenicillin vs Streptomycin: The Battle of AntibioticsPenicillin and streptomycin are two of the most important antibiotics ever discovered — and they work in completely diffe

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Double-stranded DNA in the cytosol is always a mistake. A virus has uncoated, a mitochondrion has ruptured, a micronucleus has burst, or a chromosome has been broken and left unrepaired. cGAS treats

Both interferon families run through STAT1, and that single shared subunit is why they are so often conflated — and why conflating them is a mistake. Type I interferon assembles STAT1 into a three-pa

Understanding PIIINP Levels in Canine Liver FibrosisLiver fibrosis is a significant health concern in dogs, often leading to severe complications if not diagnosed and managed appropriately. This artic

What is Hepatocyte Growth Factor? Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) is a cytokine that is mainly produced by the liver. HGF is a pleiotrophic cytokine that regulates cell growth, motilit

Every T-cell response begins with a protein being taken apart. Before a CD8 or CD4 T cell can see anything, an antigen has to be degraded into peptides of the right length, delivered to the right com

In the intricate tapestry of the immune system, macrophages play a pivotal role, orchestrating a wide range of biological responses that protect the body against pathogens, remove cellular debris,

Imagine engineering a patient's own immune cells into precision-guided missiles against cancer—cells that can seek out and destroy tumors with remarkable specificity. This is the promise of CAR-T cell

Protocols · Western BlottingBoiling Proteins for Western BlottingHeating protein samples in SDS loading buffer denatures proteins and coats them in a uniform negative charge for clean SDS-PAGE s

CD40, a member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) superfamily, plays a pivotal role in regulating immune responses, particularly in activating antigen-presenting cells (APCs) an

The Role of CTLA-4 in Breast Cancer: Implications for ImmunotherapyBreast cancer (BC) remains one of the most prevalent malignancies affecting women worldwide, with significant morbidity and mortality

Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF) is a protein that stimulates cell growth and differentiation by binding to its receptor epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) which triggers ligand-induced d

Understanding Myeloid Cell Networks in Cancer ImmunotherapyImmunotherapy has revolutionized cancer treatment, yet its effectiveness in re-establishing original immune responses post-therapy remains li

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For decades, immunologists believed that only adaptive immunity—the sophisticated system of T cells and B cells—could form lasting memories of past infections. The innate immune system, our body's fir

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Explore the complexities of Interleukin-10 (IL-10) signaling and regulation, a crucial aspect in immune response modulation and its dual roles in cancer development and therapy. Key Takeaways:

Introduction to TREM2 and Tumor-Associated Macrophages in CancerTREM2 (triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2) is an immunoregulatory receptor primarily expressed on macrophages

Dozens of cytokines converge on four kinases and seven transcription factors. That compression is the problem JAK–STAT has to solve, and it is why this map is drawn as receptor, kinase and STAT colum

The human body is a complex and intricate system where various components work together to maintain health and combat potential threats. Among these essential players are the TNF cyt

Every leukocyte that reaches an inflamed tissue has solved the same mechanical problem. It must stop, in under a second, against a shear flow that would otherwise sweep it past the site of infection.

Cell Signalling · MetabolismInsulin Signalling & Receptor Tyrosine KinasesInsulin controls metabolism and growth through the insulin receptor — a receptor tyrosine kinase that branches into the