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By Eoin Mac Réamoinn Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are renowned for their fundamental roles in innate sensing and initiating inflammatory responses. TLRs acco

Signal 1 tells a T cell what it is looking at; signal 2 tells it whether to care. The same peptide–MHC engagement that launches a productive effector response can just as easily install an anergy pro

NF-κB is not one pathway, it is two clocks running at different speeds. The canonical arm fires within minutes of TNF-α, IL-1β or LPS reaching the surface, peaks, and is switched off by feedback it e

The T-cell receptor is the most finely calibrated detector in immunology. It must discriminate an agonist peptide present at a few dozen copies from a self peptide present at tens of thousands, and i

A chimeric antigen receptor is a synthetic protein wired into a real signalling pathway. The extracellular half is an antibody fragment; everything below the membrane is borrowed from the T-cell rece

Interferons (IFNs) are a group of signalling proteins that are produced and released from cells in response to viral infection and other stimuli such as normal and tumour cell survival and

Cell culture techniques are fundamental to biomedical research, providing crucial insights into cellular functions, drug discovery, and disease mechanisms. A critical step in cell culture is the p

MORV0013 functioned effectively in both qPCR machines and water baths, with or without paraffin oil, maintaining consistent sensitivity and specificity. MORV0013 performed reliably betwe

Double-stranded DNA in the cytosol is always a mistake. A virus has uncoated, a mitochondrion has ruptured, a micronucleus has burst, or a chromosome has been broken and left unrepaired. cGAS treats

Toll-Like Receptors The innate immune response has come under the spotlight in recent years due to its central role in propagating the pathogen

PD-1 does not switch a T cell off; it moves the threshold. Engagement of PD-1 by PD-L1 recruits a single phosphatase into the immunological synapse, and that one recruitment event is enough to collap

CXCL16 CXCL16, a unique member of the CXC chemokine family, stands at the crossroads of immune modulation and vascular biology. Initially discovered as a chem

The Spanish flu pandemic of 1918-1919 was the deadliest in history. It is estimated that up to 100 million people died from the virus, which is more than three times the number who d

Cryopreservation of stimulated T cells is a common technique in immunology research, allowing for long-term storage while maintaining their functional viability. Stimulated T cells—especi

Introduction Transformation of bacteria with plasmids is not only of note for bacterial studies but also can be used for gene expression studies in mammalian cells. Most plasmids are of bact

The inflammasome is one of the few innate pathways that destroys the cell it activates. A macrophage that assembles NLRP3 has committed to a decision it cannot reverse: a priming signal through TLR4

Immunology · HyperinflammationCytokine Storm and Cytokine Release Syndrome: Mechanisms, Triggers and MarkersA cytokine storm is a self-amplifying inflammatory response in which cytokine release drives

Before I even started my PhD I was already thinking about carrying out PostDoc in a foreign country and had my sights set on going to the US. I had previously carried out a degree in Genetics

Cell Signalling · InflammationMAPK Signalling in Inflammatory Cytokine PathwaysMAPK cascades convert receptor engagement into changes in gene expression, and in inflammation they do it in both directi

Techniques · Molecular CloningGuide to Bacterial Transformation: The Science of Genetic ManipulationBacterial transformation is the process by which bacteria take up foreign DNA — usually a plasmid —

HMGB1 Functional Overview High mobility group box 1 ( HMGB1), a member of the high-mobility group (HMG) family, was first identified in the thymus in 1973 an

BRIEF HISTORY OF THE “GREEN” EVOLUTION OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE WITHIN OUR ATMOSPHERE Million years ago carbon dioxide (CO2) levels used to be conside

Molecular Biology · Techniques Guide Types of PCR – 7 Methods, Principles & Applications PCR stands as a cornerstone in molecular biology, ena