1764 results for 'NF-κB'

NF-κB is not one pathway, it is two clocks running at different speeds. The canonical arm fires within minutes of TNF-α, IL-1β or LPS reaching the surface, peaks, and is switched off by feedback it e

Immunology · Cytokine SignallingTNF-alpha and Inflammation: Structure, Signalling & TherapyTumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) is one of the most important pro-inflammatory cytokines in the body. Sig

Toll-like receptors are the reason a milligram of endotoxin can kill a mouse. They are the fastest, least discriminating layer of immunity: germline-encoded sensors that read conserved microbial chem

The T-cell receptor is the most finely calibrated detector in immunology. It must discriminate an agonist peptide present at a few dozen copies from a self peptide present at tens of thousands, and i

A chimeric antigen receptor is a synthetic protein wired into a real signalling pathway. The extracellular half is an antibody fragment; everything below the membrane is borrowed from the T-cell rece

The inflammasome is one of the few innate pathways that destroys the cell it activates. A macrophage that assembles NLRP3 has committed to a decision it cannot reverse: a priming signal through TLR4

Double-stranded DNA in the cytosol is always a mistake. A virus has uncoated, a mitochondrion has ruptured, a micronucleus has burst, or a chromosome has been broken and left unrepaired. cGAS treats

Nod-like receptors Nod like receptors (NLRs) are a versatile family of relatively recently discovered intracellular receptors which have a br

Almost any inflammatory phenotype in a mouse can be assigned to a cytokine by taking that cytokine away. Neutralisation is the most direct causal test immunology has: inject a functional-grade antibo

Nuclear Factor Erythroid 2–Related Factor 2 (NRF2) orchestrates a principal defense mechanism against oxidative stress and plays a pivotal role in inflammation and disease pathogenesis. This artic

Signal 1 tells a T cell what it is looking at; signal 2 tells it whether to care. The same peptide–MHC engagement that launches a productive effector response can just as easily install an anergy pro

The Spanish flu pandemic of 1918-1919 was the deadliest in history. It is estimated that up to 100 million people died from the virus, which is more than three times the number who d

In most solid tumours the largest immune population is not a T cell. It is a myeloid cell that has been recruited, expanded and re-educated by the tumour itself. Tumour-associated macrophages and mye

Every leukocyte that reaches an inflamed tissue has solved the same mechanical problem. It must stop, in under a second, against a shear flow that would otherwise sweep it past the site of infection.

CD155 is read by four different receptors, and only one of them turns the killing programme on. The nectin and nectin-like ligands induced on stressed and transformed cells are simultaneously an acti

Apoptosis is not one pathway but three routes into the same execution machinery. A death ligand at the surface, a mitochondrion that loses outer-membrane integrity, and a granzyme delivered by a cyto

In the intricate landscape of the immune system, toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a fundamental role in the first line of defense against pathogens. These receptors, essential components of the inn

The germinal centre is where antibody quality is made. A naive B cell that binds antigen does not become a source of protective, high-affinity IgG by accident. It passes through a tightly choreograph

Inflammasomes are complex intracellular structures that play a pivotal role in the immune response by detecting pathogenic microorganisms and sterile stressors. Their activation is a critical step

The innate immune system, a primary line of defense against pathogens, comprises various cellular and molecular mechanisms. Among these, the Nod-like Receptor (NLR) signaling pathways play a criti

The prevalence of obesity and its associated metabolic disorders has risen dramatically in recent decades, presenting a significant global health challenge. Adipose tissue, once considered mere

PD-1 does not switch a T cell off; it moves the threshold. Engagement of PD-1 by PD-L1 recruits a single phosphatase into the immunological synapse, and that one recruitment event is enough to collap

Toll-Like Receptors The innate immune response has come under the spotlight in recent years due to its central role in propagating the pathogen

You can remove almost every B cell from an animal and barely move its antibody titre. That is not a failed experiment — it is the expected result, and it follows from one fact: CD20 is switched off a

Understanding Myeloid Cell Networks in Cancer ImmunotherapyImmunotherapy has revolutionized cancer treatment, yet its effectiveness in re-establishing original immune responses post-therapy remains li

Immunotherapy has become a central pillar in the fight against cancer, with a focus on enhancing the body’s natural defenses. Among the molecules at the forefront of immunotherapeutic res

Acute pancreatitis (AP) is a condition in which activated enzymes and inflammatory mediators released from the pancreas cause damage to the pancreas and surrounding tissues. AP is furt

Cancer immunotherapy has revolutionized treatment options, offering strategies to harness the immune system to target and destroy tumors. One emerging area of interest is the use of OX40

The human body is a complex and intricate system where various components work together to maintain health and combat potential threats. Among these essential players are the TNF cyt

The Interleukin-1 (IL-1) family represents a crucial group of signaling molecules that play a pivotal role in regulating the immune system and inflammatory responses. Comprising 11 members, inc

Ubiquitin is a small, highly conserved protein found in eukaryotic cells that plays a crucial role in regulating various cellular processes. The process of ubiquitination involves the covalent att

The STING (Stimulator of Interferon Genes) pathway plays a pivotal role in the innate immune system's response to cancerous cells and DNA viruses. Exploiting this pathway through STING activators

Two drugs aimed at the same axis can give opposite results in the same disease. Blocking IL-23p19 is highly effective in psoriasis and works in Crohn’s disease. Blocking IL-17A directly is highly eff

Endocrinology · ImmunologyCortisol and the Immune ResponseCortisol is the body’s primary stress hormone — a glucocorticoid released by the adrenal gland that powerfully shapes the immune system. Actin

Immunology · CytokinesIFN-gamma: Signalling, Function and Roles in Inflammation, Cancer and AutoimmunityInterferon gamma is the sole type II interferon and one of the most consequential cytokines in i

What You Need to Know About MilatuzumabWhat is Milatuzumab?Milatuzumab is a humanized monoclonal antibody targeting CD74, a molecule involved in antigen presentation and cell signaling.W

Delve into the pivotal role of Neurofilament Light chain (NEFL) in neuron structure and its emerging importance as a biomarker for various neurodegenerative diseases, offering insights into dis

Introduction to TLR4 and Cancer Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is a key component of the innate immune system, primarily responsible for detecting infections and initiating inflammatory resp

CXCL16 CXCL16, a unique member of the CXC chemokine family, stands at the crossroads of immune modulation and vascular biology. Initially discovered as a chem

The p38 MAPK signaling pathway is an intracellular signaling pathway that plays a crucial role in cellular responses to various stressors and inflammatory stimuli. It is a part of the larger MAPK

Cell Signalling · InflammationMAPK Signalling in Inflammatory Cytokine PathwaysMAPK cascades convert receptor engagement into changes in gene expression, and in inflammation they do it in both directi

As atherosclerosis is a complex inflammatory disease, there are many influential biomarkers that contribute to the disease’s progression as well as biomarkers from atherosclerosis related di

Exploring IL-18: A key cytokine in inflammation and disease. Key Takeaways: IL-18, a pro-inflammatory cytokine, plays a pivotal role in immune responses, particularly in inducing Type II

Explore the complexities of Interleukin-10 (IL-10) signaling and regulation, a crucial aspect in immune response modulation and its dual roles in cancer development and therapy. Key Takeaways:

Cell Biology · PathologyNecrosis: Types, Causes, Mechanisms and How It Is MeasuredNecrosis is cell death accompanied by membrane rupture and release of intracellular contents — which is what makes it

Immunology · HyperinflammationCytokine Storm and Cytokine Release Syndrome: Mechanisms, Triggers and MarkersA cytokine storm is a self-amplifying inflammatory response in which cytokine release drives

Cell Signalling · CytokinesJAK-STAT Signalling: Mechanism, Regulation and InhibitorsJAK-STAT is the shortest route from a cytokine outside the cell to a change in gene transcription — receptor engagem

IL-8 Overview Interleukin-8 (IL-8), also known as CXCL8, was discovered over 30 years ago as a small molecule that could promote chemotaxis and induce the production

What is VEGF? Vascular Endothelial Growth Factors (VEGFs) are a group of homodimeric polypeptides, and are master regulators of vascular development, maintenance and a

Immunology · Cell BiologyCells of the Innate Immune System: Types, Functions and MarkersThe innate immune system responds within minutes, without prior exposure, using cells that recognise conserved m