401 results for 'PI3K'

PI3K does not switch on a protein — it rewrites a membrane. Everything downstream follows from one chemical event: the 3-hydroxyl of a phosphoinositide is phosphorylated, PIP₂ becomes PIP₃, and every

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The prevalence of obesity and its associated metabolic disorders has risen dramatically in recent decades, presenting a significant global health challenge. Adipose tissue, once considered mere

Chemokines are small signaling proteins that play a crucial role in the immune system by directing the movement of cells, orchestrating immune responses, and maintaining tissue homeostasis. The

CD155 is read by four different receptors, and only one of them turns the killing programme on. The nectin and nectin-like ligands induced on stressed and transformed cells are simultaneously an acti

Protein kinase B or AKT (PKB) is a serine/threonine kinase. In mammals it is comprised of 3 highly homologous isoforms PKBα (Akt1), PKBβ (Akt2), and PKBγ (Akt3) (Manning and Cantley 2007). AKT

Cell Signalling · MetabolismInsulin Signalling & Receptor Tyrosine KinasesInsulin controls metabolism and growth through the insulin receptor — a receptor tyrosine kinase that branches into the

PD-1 does not switch a T cell off; it moves the threshold. Engagement of PD-1 by PD-L1 recruits a single phosphatase into the immunological synapse, and that one recruitment event is enough to collap

Signal 1 tells a T cell what it is looking at; signal 2 tells it whether to care. The same peptide–MHC engagement that launches a productive effector response can just as easily install an anergy pro

In most solid tumours the largest immune population is not a T cell. It is a myeloid cell that has been recruited, expanded and re-educated by the tumour itself. Tumour-associated macrophages and mye

A chimeric antigen receptor is a synthetic protein wired into a real signalling pathway. The extracellular half is an antibody fragment; everything below the membrane is borrowed from the T-cell rece

Almost all of the TGF-β in a tissue is already there, and almost none of it is active. That single fact reorganises how the pathway should be studied. Unlike most cytokines, TGF-β is deposited into t

A natural killer cell decides by subtraction. It carries no rearranged antigen receptor and no memory of what it has seen. It presses a panel of germline-encoded receptors against a target and integr

Cell Signalling · Growth FactorsGrowth Factors: Families, Receptors and Signalling PathwaysGrowth factors are secreted proteins that instruct cells whether to divide, differentiate, migrate or survive

Cancer Biology · GeneticsTumour Suppressor Genes: Roles, Examples & CancerTumour suppressor genes are the brakes on cell growth — they restrain proliferation, repair damaged DNA and trigger apoptosis

Introduction Tumorigenesis, the process by which normal cells transform into cancer cells, is a multifaceted and complex event influenced by various internal and external factors. Among the

The T-cell receptor is the most finely calibrated detector in immunology. It must discriminate an agonist peptide present at a few dozen copies from a self peptide present at tens of thousands, and i

IL-8 Overview Interleukin-8 (IL-8), also known as CXCL8, was discovered over 30 years ago as a small molecule that could promote chemotaxis and induce the production

What is VEGF? Vascular Endothelial Growth Factors (VEGFs) are a group of homodimeric polypeptides, and are master regulators of vascular development, maintenance and a

IntroductionCancer cells have developed sophisticated mechanisms to evade the immune system, particularly through the inhibition of T-cell responses. One such mechanism involves the progr

Immunotherapy has become a central pillar in the fight against cancer, with a focus on enhancing the body’s natural defenses. Among the molecules at the forefront of immunotherapeutic res

Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) are pivotal in regulating cellular processes, including proliferation, differentiation, and survival. The FGF signaling pathways play a critical role in embryonic

The ERK signal transduction pathway stands as a fundamental mechanism in cellular biology, orchestrating a wide array of physiological processes, including cell division, differentiation, and surv

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Exploring LAG-3: A Key Regulator in T Cell ImmunityLAG-3 (Lymphocyte Activation Gene-3) is an inhibitory receptor that plays a crucial role in modulating T cell activation and effector functions. This

Cell Signalling · MetabolismThe mTOR Signalling PathwaymTOR is a master regulator of cell growth, metabolism and survival, integrating nutrient, growth-factor and energy signals through two comp

Chronic myelogenous leukaemia (CML) is a myeloproliferative haematopoietic malignancy, characterised by a karyotypic abnormality present in more than 95% of cases known as the Philadelph

Hypoxia, or low oxygen levels, poses a significant challenge to cells, necessitating rapid and efficient adaptation mechanisms. The Hypoxia-Inducible Factor (HIF) pathway is a well-known regula

Leukemia Inhibitory Factor (LIF) is a cytokine that plays a crucial role in various physiological processes within the human body. It has gained significant attention in the field of

Transforming Growth Factor-Beta (TGF-β) signaling pathway plays a pivotal role in orchestrating various cellular processes, ranging from embryonic development to tissue homeostasis and immune resp

Mechanical forces are common in biological systems and dominate numerous perturbations that are relevant to human physiology and disease. Mechanobiology is a new field that evaluates the eff

What is Hepatocyte Growth Factor? Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) is a cytokine that is mainly produced by the liver. HGF is a pleiotrophic cytokine that regulates cell growth, motilit

The Spanish flu pandemic of 1918-1919 was the deadliest in history. It is estimated that up to 100 million people died from the virus, which is more than three times the number who d

Quick Facts About CetuximabWhat is Cetuximab?Cetuximab is a monoclonal antibody targeting the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), widely used in cancer therapy.How does Cetuximab wo

Cell Biology · Protein DegradationThe Autophagy Pathway: Mechanism, Regulation and How to Measure ItAutophagy is the cell’s route for degrading and recycling its own contents — damaged organelles, agg

Quick Facts About AbituzumabWhat is Abituzumab?Abituzumab is a monoclonal antibody that targets αv-integrins, playing a role in cancer treatment and fibrotic diseases.What is the mechani

What You Need to Know About MilatuzumabWhat is Milatuzumab?Milatuzumab is a humanized monoclonal antibody targeting CD74, a molecule involved in antigen presentation and cell signaling.W

CXCL16 CXCL16, a unique member of the CXC chemokine family, stands at the crossroads of immune modulation and vascular biology. Initially discovered as a chem

Ralitsa R. Madsen – University of Cambridge Metabolic Research Laboratories Each one of us is the result of an extraordinary developmental proces

Quick Facts About TrastuzumabWhat is Trastuzumab?Trastuzumab is a monoclonal antibody used to treat HER2-positive breast and gastric cancers. It specifically targets the HER2 protein, re

Quick Facts About ZilovertamabWhat is Zilovertamab?Zilovertamab is a monoclonal antibody targeting ROR1, a receptor tyrosine kinase overexpressed in hematologic cancers and solid tumors.

Cancer Metabolism is the mechanism by which cancer cells make energy in order for them to grow and spread. Even in the presence of oxygen, cancer cells increase glucose uptake and produce lactate,

PD-1 & PD-L1 interaction between T-cells and tumour cells. What are PD-1 and PD-L1? PD-1, also known as programmed cell death 1, is a receptor expressed on t

Introduction to CD122 in Immunotherapy CD122, also known as the interleukin-2 receptor beta chain (IL-2Rβ), is a critical component of the immune system's response to pathogens and malign

By Charlotte O’Donnell PhD Cancer Carcinogenesis is a multi-step process that develops through epigenetic changes and muta

BDNF Overview Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a central mediator of neuroplasticity, a term used to describe the ability of neurons