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NF-κB is not one pathway, it is two clocks running at different speeds. The canonical arm fires within minutes of TNF-α, IL-1β or LPS reaching the surface, peaks, and is switched off by feedback it e

Every leukocyte that reaches an inflamed tissue has solved the same mechanical problem. It must stop, in under a second, against a shear flow that would otherwise sweep it past the site of infection.

Almost all of the TGF-β in a tissue is already there, and almost none of it is active. That single fact reorganises how the pathway should be studied. Unlike most cytokines, TGF-β is deposited into t

Immunology · Cytokine SignallingTNF-alpha and Inflammation: Structure, Signalling & TherapyTumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) is one of the most important pro-inflammatory cytokines in the body. Sig

The inflammasome is one of the few innate pathways that destroys the cell it activates. A macrophage that assembles NLRP3 has committed to a decision it cannot reverse: a priming signal through TLR4

Almost any inflammatory phenotype in a mouse can be assigned to a cytokine by taking that cytokine away. Neutralisation is the most direct causal test immunology has: inject a functional-grade antibo

Toll-like receptors are the reason a milligram of endotoxin can kill a mouse. They are the fastest, least discriminating layer of immunity: germline-encoded sensors that read conserved microbial chem

Interferons (IFNs) are a group of signalling proteins that are produced and released from cells in response to viral infection and other stimuli such as normal and tumour cell survival and

Neuroscience · MicrobiomeUnderstanding the Gut-Brain AxisThe gut-brain axis is the dynamic, bidirectional communication system that links the gastrointestinal tract with the central nervous system. Th

In most solid tumours the largest immune population is not a T cell. It is a myeloid cell that has been recruited, expanded and re-educated by the tumour itself. Tumour-associated macrophages and mye

A chimeric antigen receptor is a synthetic protein wired into a real signalling pathway. The extracellular half is an antibody fragment; everything below the membrane is borrowed from the T-cell rece

Nod-like receptors Nod like receptors (NLRs) are a versatile family of relatively recently discovered intracellular receptors which have a br

Transforming Growth Factor-Beta (TGF-β) signaling pathway plays a pivotal role in orchestrating various cellular processes, ranging from embryonic development to tissue homeostasis and immune resp

CD155 is read by four different receptors, and only one of them turns the killing programme on. The nectin and nectin-like ligands induced on stressed and transformed cells are simultaneously an acti

ST2, a member of the IL-1R Subfamily ST2 is a member of the IL-1R subfamily and was identified in 1989 [1]. The ST2 gene is located on chromoso

Cell Signalling · Kinase CascadesMAPK Signaling: The Pathway of Mitogen StimulationThe mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway is one of the most important signalling cascades in biology, conv

Schwann cells are cells that play a vital role in nerve function. They are responsible for myelinating axons and helping to ensure the transmission of electrical signals between neurons. Schwann c

Cell Signalling · MetabolismInsulin Signalling & Receptor Tyrosine KinasesInsulin controls metabolism and growth through the insulin receptor — a receptor tyrosine kinase that branches into the