8341 results for 'extracellular vesicles'

A chimeric antigen receptor is a synthetic protein wired into a real signalling pathway. The extracellular half is an antibody fragment; everything below the membrane is borrowed from the T-cell rece

What is a Plasma Membrane? The plasma membrane, also known as the cell membrane, is a vital component of all cells. It is a thin, semi-permeable barrier that separate

Transforming Growth Factor-Beta (TGF-β) signaling pathway plays a pivotal role in orchestrating various cellular processes, ranging from embryonic development to tissue homeostasis and immune resp

Toll-like receptors are the reason a milligram of endotoxin can kill a mouse. They are the fastest, least discriminating layer of immunity: germline-encoded sensors that read conserved microbial chem

By Diana-Madalina Stan, PhD student, University of Salford Disease Description Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the most common cause of dementia, is a neu

Notch signalling pathway review The Notch signalling pathway is a highly conserved intercellular signalling pathway that regulates various cellular processes. The Notch receptor is a tr

At Assay Genie we have created a comprehensive guide outlining everything you need to know about apoptosis! Key Takeaways: Apoptosis is a programmed cell death process, vital for tissue

Biologics · Bone MetabolismDenosumab: RANKL Inhibition, Clinical Applications and BiosimilarsDenosumab is a fully human monoclonal antibody against RANKL, the cytokine that drives osteoclast formation

In the relentless fight against cancer, immunotherapy has emerged as a beacon of hope, harnessing the body's own defenses to combat malignant cells. Yet, predicting which patients will respond to the

Imagine a living drug, engineered from a patient's own immune system, that can hunt down and destroy cancer cells with remarkable precision. This isn't science fiction; it's the reality of Chimeric An

Immunology · NeuroscienceHistamine Receptors: H1, H2, H3 & H4 ExplainedHistamine receptors are the G protein-coupled receptors through which histamine controls allergy, gastric acid secretion, neurotr

What is Immunometabolism? Immunometabolism is an exponentially growing, multi-disciplinary field of research aiming at deciphering the dynamic cellular and mole

CD4+ T cells are central to the immune system, functioning as coordinators of immune responses and regulators of immune tolerance. These cells are divided into two primary subtypes: Helpe

Oesophageal Adenocarcinoma is on the rise globally affecting more than 450,000 people worldwide (Pennathur, Gibson et al. 2013). Once diagnosed overall 5-year survival ranges from 15 % to 2

PD-L1 in Cancer Immunotherapy: Insights from Recent ResearchRecent advancements in cancer immunotherapy have underscored the critical role of programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) in mediating immune evas

Quick Facts About TrastuzumabWhat is Trastuzumab?Trastuzumab is a monoclonal antibody used to treat HER2-positive breast and gastric cancers. It specifically targets the HER2 protein, re

Danka Kozareva PhD Candidate, University College Cork The generation of neurons from stem cells The process of generating

The antigen tells a CD4 T cell to respond; the cytokine tells it what kind of response to make. A naive CD4⁺ T cell leaving the thymus is uncommitted. Within about seventy-two hours of engaging TCR/C

For years, the success of CAR-T cell therapy has been a beacon of hope in the fight against blood cancers, offering remarkable remissions where other treatments have failed. Yet, solid tumors—the form

For decades, we viewed cancer as a rogue army of cells, a biological glitch driven solely by genetic mutations and metabolic greed. We imagined tumors as isolated fortresses, growing in a vacuum of t

Imagine a world where cancer treatment is no longer a blunt instrument but a precision-guided surgical strike, executed by the body's own immune system. For years, we have dreamed of 'smart' cells th

Introduction Microtubules are key components of the cytoskeleton and are composed of alpha and beta tubulin. These dimerise in a head to tail fashion to form 13 linear protofilaments.

Complete T Helper Cell Guide: Th1, Th2, Th17 & Functions - Your Ultimate Resource from Assay GenieIn this guide, we will explore the differences between TH1 and TH2 cells, their crucial r

Imagine a microscopic sniper, capable of delivering a lethal blow to a single cancer cell while leaving its healthy neighbors virtually untouched. This is the promise of targeted alpha therapy, a rev

Structure, Function, and Detection Assays for COVID-2019 Background The global spread of the novel cor

Cell Signalling · Growth FactorsGrowth Factors: Families, Receptors and Signalling PathwaysGrowth factors are secreted proteins that instruct cells whether to divide, differentiate, migrate or survive

Techniques · Molecular CloningGuide to Bacterial Transformation: The Science of Genetic ManipulationBacterial transformation is the process by which bacteria take up foreign DNA — usually a plasmid —

Cell Signalling · Kinase CascadesMAPK Signaling: The Pathway of Mitogen StimulationThe mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway is one of the most important signalling cascades in biology, conv

Schwann cells are cells that play a vital role in nerve function. They are responsible for myelinating axons and helping to ensure the transmission of electrical signals between neurons. Schwann c

Enzymology · Protein DegradationProtease vs Peptidase: Understanding the DifferenceProteases and peptidases are the enzymes that cleave peptide bonds — breaking proteins down into peptides and peptide

What is a Macrophage? Macrophages are indeed a type of phagocyte, responsible for engulfing and destroying foreign particles and cellular debris. They are larger cells with more cytoplasm an

Transfection protocols play a crucial role in the realm of molecular biology and genetic research, enabling the introduction of foreign nucleic acids into living cells. This innovati

For decades, the brain has been considered an immune sanctuary, protected by the formidable blood-brain barrier. This intricate defense system, while vital for safeguarding our most complex organ, ha

By Eoin Mac Réamoinn Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are renowned for their fundamental roles in innate sensing and initiating inflammatory responses. TLRs acco

Neuroscience · Myelin BiologyA Quick Guide to MyelinMyelin is the lipid-rich insulating sheath wrapped around nerve axons. Made by oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system and Schwann cells in t

Toll-Like Receptors The innate immune response has come under the spotlight in recent years due to its central role in propagating the pathogen

Immunology Guide 5 Types of Immunoglobulins: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD & IgE The five antibody classes that drive immune defence — their structure, fun

Cell Signalling · CytokinesJAK-STAT Signalling: Mechanism, Regulation and InhibitorsJAK-STAT is the shortest route from a cytokine outside the cell to a change in gene transcription — receptor engagem

Haematology · HaemostasisPlatelets: Formation, Structure, Activation and Clinical SignificancePlatelets are anucleate fragments shed from megakaryocytes, and they carry out primary haemostasis — adher

Cell Biology · PathologyNecrosis: Types, Causes, Mechanisms and How It Is MeasuredNecrosis is cell death accompanied by membrane rupture and release of intracellular contents — which is what makes it

Cell Biology · Programmed Cell DeathApoptosis: Your Complete Guide to Intrinsic & Extrinsic PathwaysApoptosis is programmed cell death — the controlled, non-inflammatory removal of damaged or unwanted

Immunology · Cell BiologyCells of the Innate Immune System: Types, Functions and MarkersThe innate immune system responds within minutes, without prior exposure, using cells that recognise conserved m

Neuroscience · BiomarkersA Guide to Tau Proteins & TauopathiesTau keeps the neuronal cytoskeleton standing up. When its phosphorylation goes wrong, the same protein becomes the aggregate that defines

Immunology · Antibody BiologyAntibody Light Chains, Heavy Chains, Constant Regions & Tumour-Associated AntigensAn antibody’s specificity comes from its variable domains and its biological effect comes

Immunology · Flow CytometryT Cell Immunophenotyping: Markers, Subsets and Panel DesignImmunophenotyping identifies cell populations by the proteins on their surface. For T cells that means resolving n

Immunology · CytokinesIFN-gamma: Signalling, Function and Roles in Inflammation, Cancer and AutoimmunityInterferon gamma is the sole type II interferon and one of the most consequential cytokines in i