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What is Gram-Negative bacteria? Gram-negative bacteria are a diverse group of microorganisms characterized by their unique cell wall structure. They stain pink or red when subjected to the Gram stain test, indicating the presence of a thin peptidoglycan layer sandwiched between two cell membranes. This structural distinction plays a significant role in their ability to cause a wide range of diseases. Gram-negative bacteria have adapted to various environments and can be found in soil, water, plants, and animals, including humans. Their versatility and adaptability contribute to their ability to cause a multitude of diseases. Some notable examples of Gram-negative bacteri …

Unravel the complexities of bone resorption, a crucial biological process essential for skeletal health and calcium regulation, through the intricate roles of osteoclasts and osteoblasts. Key Takeaways Bone resorption is essential for maintaining skeletal health and calcium balance. Osteoclasts dissolve bone tissue, and osteoblasts create new bone, forming a continuous cycle called bone remodeling. Imbalance in bone resorption can lead to conditions like osteoporosis, hyperparathyroidism, or osteopetrosis. Subperiosteal resorption can indicate systemic diseases, particularly hyperparathyroidism. Calcium, stored in bone as hydroxyapatite crystals, plays a vital role in bone res …

Metabolism · Biochemistry GuideBeta-Oxidation of Fatty AcidsBeta-oxidation is the mitochondrial pathway that breaks fatty acids down into acetyl-CoA for energy. This guide covers where it happens, the carnitine shuttle, the four-step reaction cycle, its products and its role in metabolism and immunity.Browse Metabolism Assay Kits →2CREMOVED PER CYCLE4REACTION STEPSAcetyl-CoA+ FADH2 & NADHCPT1RATE-LIMITING STEPQuick answerBeta-oxidation is the mitochondrial pathway that degrades fatty acids into acetyl-CoA for energy. Long-chain fatty acids are first shuttled into the mitochondrion by the carnitine palmitoyltransferases, then broken down two carbons at a time through four repeating …

As a PhD student delving deep into the realm of cellular biology, there is one antagonist that consistently challenges my research: mycoplasma. This microscopic bacterium, with its ability to invisibly infiltrate and undermine cell cultures, has become a persistent foe. However, understanding the intricacies of this bacterial contaminant is the first step towards effective mitigation. window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_V2_ELEMENTS = window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_V2_ELEMENTS || new Array(); window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_V2_ELEMENTS.push({ hoverImage: '', uuid: 's-9662d6e3-0a1e-4340-82be-21f2d6baf7d7' }) Schematic of Mycoplasma The Invisible Enemy: Understan …

Objectives & Key Results Objectives & Key Results (OKRs) is a framework for setting and tracking goals. At Assay Genie, we've tailored this approach to suit research. Explore our OKR for Researchers presentation, get practical advice from our video, and apply this framework to your research with our downloadable OKR worksheet! OKR Pack! Download Implementing OKRs In this video you'll find out what OKRs are and how they can be sucessfully integrated in the lab to help you maximise productivity and achieve your research objectives. T …

Introduction to Sci-Hub In the realm of science and academia, one name has been echoing in every corner of the globe, Sci-Hub. Created by Alexandra Elbakyan, a Kazakhstani computer scientist, Sci-Hub is considered the most controversial yet revolutionary project in modern science. Since its inception in 2011, it has become a beacon of hope for millions of students, researchers, medical professionals, journalists, and curious minds across the globe​1​. window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_V2_ELEMENTS = window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_V2_ELEMENTS || new Array(); window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_V2_ELEMENTS.push({ uuid: 's-84b23fdd-a706-4847-b3a8-8ebed2d21066' }) The Mission of Sci-Hub Sci-Hub emerg …

Writing a Thesis Statement Writing a thesis statement can be a frustrating task, whether you're working on your undergraduate, master's, or PhD degree. Unfortunately, many teachers and professors don't provide clear examples of what a good thesis statement looks like or what elements it should include. If you're struggling to write your thesis statement, this blog post offers some helpful tips to consider. Plus, we've included a worksheet to help you improve your skills. Whether you're just starting out or finishing up your thesis, these resources can help you craft a strong and effective thesis statement. Thesis Statem …

PhD Interview Presentation Dos and Don’ts It is becoming increasingly common for master's and undergraduate students to present data they produced during their research as part of the PhD interview process. This may involve presenting to the potential lab, professor, or department interview panel responsible for evaluating candidates. The aim of this is to understand what basic skills and understanding the potential PhD candidate already has about the field or a scientific topic in general. For many this is a great opportunity to impress and may allow applicants to rise above competing applicants that may have the grades on paper but do not have the drive, …

Explore 29 essential tips for crafting a compelling and well-structured PhD thesis, blending effective writing practices with time management and academic rigor for a successful dissertation journey. Be sure to check out some of our other PhD/Post Doc related resources. Key Takeaways: Incorporate 29 effective strategies for efficient and impactful PhD thesis writing. Embrace practical tips like writing drafts, managing time, and utilizing technology for smoother writing. Understand the importance of regular breaks, setting goals, and seeking feedback for continuous improvement. Recognize the value of maintaining academic rigor and clarity throughout the thesis. 29 PhD …

Introduction Claudins are a family of proteins that play a critical role in the formation of tight junctions between cells. Tight junctions are the structures that seal the intercellular space between adjacent cells, preventing the free diffusion of molecules and ions. Claudins are responsible for the selective permeability of tight junctions, and they regulate the paracellular transport of ions and solutes. In addition, claudins have been implicated in various diseases, including cancer. In this article, we will discuss the different types of claudins, their role in disease, their poten …

Hepatic Function Assays Liver function assays are a suite of tests designed to assess the health and efficacy of our vital organ: The liver. This hardworking powerhouse is responsible for creating bile, eliminating toxins, and breaking down fats, carbohydrates and proteins – all necessary elements that keep us ticking! To evaluate the liver's health, there are various hepatic function assays that can be performed. These tests measure the organ's capacity to produce bile, metabolize toxins and drugs, as well as synthesize proteins and carbohydrates. By assessing these three factors of liver performance with an …

Extracellular Vesicles What are Extracellular Vesicles? Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are tiny, spherical structures that are released by cells into the extracellular environment. They are usually composed of a lipid bilayer membrane and contain various biomolecules, such as proteins, lipids, and RNA. EVs play a critical role in intercellular communication, as they are capable of transferring functional molecules and information between cells. This allows cells to coordinate their activities, pro …

Enhancing Cancer Research: Syngeneic Mouse Models and Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors A quick guide to Syngeneic Mouse Models Syngeneic Mouse Models Cancer research has seen remarkable advancements in recent years, largely due to the development of novel therapeutic approaches such as immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). Among the various preclinical models used in cancer research, syngeneic mouse models have emerged as indispensable tools for studying the tumor microenvironment and evaluating immunotherapeutic strategies. In this article, we will delve into the significance of syngeneic mouse models in cancer research, particularly focusing on their role in the study o …

ILC2 - Function, Cytokines, and Role in Health and Disease A quick guide to IL2C Our immune system is composed of various types of cells that work together to protect us from harmful pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria. One type of immune cell that has recently gained attention is the innate lymphoid cell type 2 (ILC2). ILC2s are a type of white blood cell that play a critical role in protecting us against infections and allergies. In this article, we will explore what ILC2s …

Lab Methods · Flow CytometryFlow Cytometry Protocol: Two Worked Protocols, Controls and 10 Practical TipsFlow cytometry measures individual cells in a fluid stream at hundreds per second, reporting size, granularity and fluorescence for each one. Most failures come not from the instrument but from sample preparation, panel design and controls. This guide gives two complete worked protocols, a full controls reference table, and ten practical points that determine whether the data is interpretable.Browse flow cytometry reagents →FSC / SSCSize and granularityPMTPhotomultiplier voltageFMOThe control that sets gates9Controls in the reference tableKey takeawaysForward scatter correlates with parti …

Cell Culture · ProtocolsCell Synchronisation Methods: Protocols for G1, S, G2 and M Phase ArrestAn asynchronous culture contains cells at every stage of the cycle at once, so any measurement is an average across phases. Synchronisation forces cells into one phase so that phase-specific events can actually be observed. This guide covers the chemical and physical approaches, six working protocols with concentrations and timings, how to confirm synchrony by flow cytometry, and the artefacts these methods introduce.Browse cell cycle reagents →2 mMThymidine, double block100 nMNocodazole for M-phase arrest9 µMRO-3306 for G2/M arrestFlow + PIStandard synchrony confirmationKey takeawaysSynchronisati …

Mycoprotein is an alternative source of protein that can be used in place of meat. It is made from a fungi called Fusarium venenatum, and is consumed by vegetarians and vegans as a meat substitute. It is also a good source of iron and B vitamins. Mycoprotein has a chewy texture and can be used in many different recipes. Mycoprotein can be found in many different stores and can be found in the refrigerated or frozen section. Mycoprotein is also available online. Mycoprotein can be used in many different recipes. It can be cooked and used as a meat substitute in burgers, tacos, stir-fries, and more. Mycoprotein can also be used as an ingredient in pasta dishes, soups, and salads. If …

Flow Cytometry · Cell SortingGuide to Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorting (FACS)Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) is a specialised form of flow cytometry that physically isolates individual cells from a mixed sample based on their fluorescence and light-scattering properties. With sorting purities approaching 99.99%, it is one of the most powerful tools in modern cell biology, immunology and stem cell research.Explore flow cytometry antibodies →99.99%achievable sort purity1000sof cells sorted per second4+parameters measured at onceSinglecell resolutionKey TakeawaysFACS isolates individual cells with a purity approaching 99.99%.It sorts cells by size, granularity, surface markers and …

Cell Signalling · EnzymologyProtein Kinases: Function, Classification, Structure and InhibitorsProtein kinases transfer a phosphate group from ATP onto specific residues of target proteins, switching their activity on or off. Around 500 of them make up the human kinome, and because they sit at the control points of nearly every pathway, they are among the most heavily pursued drug targets in medicine. This guide covers what they do, how they are classified, their conserved architecture, how they are regulated, and how inhibitors work.Browse kinase proteins →~500Protein kinases in the human kinome3Classes by target residueSer / Thr / TyrResidues that get phosphorylatedMg²⁺Cofactor required fo …

Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF) is a protein that stimulates cell growth and differentiation by binding to its receptor epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) which triggers ligand-induced dimerization which activates the intrinsic protein-tyrosine kinase activity of EGFR. This in turn initiates a signal transduction cascade that results in various biochemical changes within the cell being targeted by EGF. This ultimately leads to DNA synthesis and cell proliferation. Members of this protein family are all similar due to their shared structural and functional characteristics. Each member of the EGF family have at least one common structural motif, the EGF domain, which is character …

SARS-CoV-2, the causative viral agent of the novel coronavirus disease COVID-19, has sparked a global effort for creating prophylactic and therapeutic interventions. The following five companies have released information on upcoming treatments or preventative measures. 1. Gilead — Remdesivir Remdesivir (GS-5734) is a broad spectrum antiviral nucleotide analogue which has shown promising results as a therapeutic in compassionate-use cases. Currently, it is in Phase 3 clinical trials across Asia and “other countries...with high numbers of diagnosed cases”. Two Phase 3 trials are running concurrently: the firs …

What is COVID-19 COVID-19, the disease caused by the coronavirus named SARS-CoV-2, first identified in Wuhan, China in December 2019 has spread globally, resulting in the ongoing 2019-2020 coronavirus pandemic. This disease is spread by the release of aerosol droplets that can be transmitted via person-to-person if they are within two meters of an infected person for 15 minutes or longer. The most common symptoms of coronavirus are fever, cough, shortness and breath or breathing difficulties. In more severe cases, pneumonia or severe acute respiratory syndrome may occur and these cases require hospitalisation. …

Seroconversion Implications in SARS-CoV-2 Diagnostic Testing Key Points: COVID-19, the pandemic coronavirus disease caused by SARS-CoV-2, has been shown to follow a typical seroconversion and immunoglobulin class (isotype) switching time course, according to preliminary data. A strong positive correlation between clinical severity and antibody titer two weeks after symptom onset was reported. COVID-19 Background: SARS-CoV-2 Structure & Infiltration SARS-CoV-2, the causative viral agent of the disease COVID-19, is a coronavirus …

COVID-19 Antibody Testing Antibody Production in COVID-19 COVID-19, the novel coronavirus disease caused by SARS-CoV-2, can be detected in patients using serological testing. COVID-19 has been shown to follow a standard seroconversion curve. This means that IgM antibodies are produced approximately 12 days after symptom onset by B cell derived plasma cells. These IgM antibodies are later outnumbered by the more robust IgG type antibodies, which mark the generation of a maturing or secondary immune response. The process of switching from primarily IgM to primarily IgG antibodies in the serum …