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COVID-19 Antibody Testing Antibody Production in COVID-19 COVID-19, the novel coronavirus disease caused by SARS-CoV-2, can be detected in patients using serological testing. COVID-19 has been shown to follow a standard seroconversion curve. This means that IgM antibodies are produced approximately 12 days after symptom onset by B cell derived plasma cells. These IgM antibodies are later outnumbered by the more robust IgG type antibodies, which mark the generation of a maturing or secondary immune response. The process of switching from primarily IgM to primarily IgG antibodies in the serum …

Workplace Testing for COVID-19 Corporate Testing for COVID-19 The impact of COVID-19 on the economy has been staggering. Current projections imply that the effects of the viral outbreak will be felt for some time. Low cost, high throughput testing has the potential to help institutions and individuals make the best choices for themselves and others.   Simple, point of care assays are the best option for workplace testing. Lateral flow immunoassays are a particularly good choice because they require minimal laboratory equipment and can yield results in as little as 15 minutes. In additi …

Nod-like receptors Nod like receptors (NLRs) are a versatile family of relatively recently discovered intracellular receptors which have a broad range of functions in humans, ranging from the regulation of antigen presentation and modulation of inflammation to embryonic development and sensing cellular metabolic changes (Motta et al 2015). Evolutionarily, NLRs are well conserved and orthologs are found across much of the animal kingdom (Lange et al 2011). The NLR family in humans is relatively diverse, comprising of 22 members with specific functions dependent on ligand specificity and effector functions, each determined by individu …

Before I even started my PhD I was already thinking about carrying out PostDoc in a foreign country and had my sights set on going to the US. I had previously carried out a degree in Genetics at Trinity College Dublin and now I was starting a PhD just across the city at University College Dublin. Like most scientists I loved to travel, I had already been to the US to carry out undergraduate research at the University of California, Davis so I decided looking for a postdoc position in the US would be the goal.However, like everything in life nothing is certain and when I saw an advertisement come up for a postdoc position at the department of genetics in the University of Cambridge f …

Writer’s block can be a big stumbling block when trying to write your PhD thesis, grant or a paper you are trying to get publish. During the early stages of writing my PhD thesis I suffered a lot from writer’s block; however, as soon as I got into a rhythm of writing, writer’s block was a thing of the past as I zoomed through page upon page of my introduction. Looking back on it now I realize what elements resulted in me having writer’s block and how I overcame it. Therefore I thought I would write this article to talk about some of the elements that stopped me putting pen to paper and provide tips for writer’s block. Not knowing …

Spindle assembly checkpoint The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC), or mitotic checkpoint, is the main cell cycle control mechanism that governs mitosis. Incorrect spindle attachment causes the spindle assembly checkpoint to generate a wait anaphase signal that prevents the activation of the anaphase promoting complex (APC), an ubiquitin E3 ligase essential for progression of the cell cycle. Conserved components of the mammalian SAC include Bub1 (Cahill et al., 1998), BubR1 [Chan et al., 1998], Bub3 [Taylor et al.,ÿ1998], Mad1[Jin et al., 1998], Mad2 [Li and Benezra, 1996] and CENP-E [Weaver etÿal., 2003]. The checkpoint becomes activated as a …

What is a vaccine? A vaccine is a pharmacological product that gives the recieving patient's immune system a chance to learn how to fight infection with decreased risk of illness. Vaccination involves administering antigenic material (the vaccine), resulting in immunity to the disease. Vaccine dosing and the need for boosters Certain vaccines require boosters at appropriate intervals to maintain effective immunity. Boosters simulate pathogen re-infection, providing antibody-producing cells with another chance to build up immunity. For example, the 6 in 1 (diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, polio, Hib, Hep B) vaccine needs to be given at 2 months, 4 months, and 6 months. This is …

T Cell Types, Activation, Polarization & Function A comprehensive guide to T cells! Introduction T-cells, vital components of the immune system, encompass various functions and types, including cytotoxic T cells, helper T cells, and regulatory T cells. Their activation and polarization play critical roles in immune responses. Understanding T-cell biology is essential for effective immune defense and therapeutic applications. Key Takeaways T-cells have diverse functions, including cytotoxicity, immune regulation, and coordination. Helper T cells activate through interactions with antigen-presenting cells and cytokines. T-ce …

What is pharmacogenomics Pharmacogenomics is how DNA variation and drugs interact and how this can optimise patient health; this involves studying pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Pharmacokinetics is the variability of how the drug interacts with the body, e.g., absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination. Pharmacodynamics is the variability of the drug interactions with its effector molecules and variability in disease mechanisms. There are many different reasons for individual variability in drug response, although we will focus on examples of how the genome affects drug response. A patient with one of these variants may experience severe and life-threatening …

Novel Gene Therapies for Cystic Fibrosis Cystic Fibrosis Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an autosomal recessive, life-limiting disease resulting from gene mutations that encode the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). This gene is comprised of 27 exons and is located on chromosome 7. CFTR is a cAMP-regulated chloride channel located on the apical membrane of exocrine epithelial cells. CFTR is involved in regulating the epithelial sodium channel and bicarbonate transport. There are many different types of CFTR mutations that result in CF; lack of production; failure to reach the site of action; defects in gating; conductance; abnormally low channel numbers; and …

Ovarian cancer is the fourth most common cancer in women. Ovarian cancer is when the normal cells in the ovary change and grow to form a tumour. Because the ovaries are located deep within the pelvis, an expanding tumour there might harm neighbouring organs. This can include the bladder or the bowel. The ovaries are two tiny oval-shaped organs on each side of your womb in your lower abdomen (pelvis). The ovaries produce oestrogen and progesterone, two female sex hormones that regulate menstrual cycles. There are several types of ovarian cancer, but the most common is epithelial ovarian cancer. Types of Ovarian Cancer Epithelial ovarian cancer - Ovari …

Chronic myelogenous leukaemia (CML) is a myeloproliferative haematopoietic malignancy, characterised by a karyotypic abnormality present in more than 95% of cases known as the Philadelphia chromosome (Lozzio et al., 1975). CML has its origins in a common myeloid progenitor cell, which differentiates into erythrocytes, megakaryoctes, or granulocytes/monocytes (Fialkow et al., 1977). The Philadelphia Chromosome The Philadelphia chromosome was first karyotypically characterised in 1959 (Moorhead et al., 1960). It was demonstrated to be the result of a reciprocal translocation between the long arms of chromosomes 9 and 22 (Rowley, …

Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem in the world today. Antibiotics are becoming less and less effective as bacteria evolve to resist them. This poses a serious threat to human health, as common infections and diseases become harder to treat. In this blog post, we will discuss the causes of antibiotic resistance and its potential consequences for the future of human health. What is Antibiotic Resistance? Antibiotics, which are drugs that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria, have been used to treat bacterial illnesses since Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928. Antibiotic resistance is caused by the overuse and misuse of antibiotics. When antibiotic …

If you've ever had a urinary tract infection, you know all about bacteria. These tiny organisms can invade your body and cause all sorts of problems. But what you may not know is that bacteria don't always travel alone - they often travel in packs called biofilms. In this blog post, we will discuss what biofilms are, how they form, and the dangers they pose to your health. We will also look at ways to prevent biofilm formation and how to protect yourself from these dangerous invaders. What are Biofilms? Biofilms are communities of microorganisms that attach to each other and to surfaces. These communities can contain hundreds or even thousands of diffe …

The tau protein is a hot topic in the scientific world right now. This little-known protein has been linked to Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and other neurodegenerative diseases. But what is it, exactly? And what does it do? What is the structure of tau proteins? The human gene that encodes for tau proteins is found on chromosome 17. Each tau protein is about 50-85 kiloDaltons in size and has around 0.01% of the total brain proteins. Tau consists of many domains that are important for its function, including: The N-terminal domain (which contains four microtubule-binding repeats) The proline-rich region (which is located between the microtubule-binding domain …

Techniques · Molecular CloningGuide to Bacterial Transformation: The Science of Genetic ManipulationBacterial transformation is the process by which bacteria take up foreign DNA — usually a plasmid — from their surroundings and express it. It is a foundational tool for cloning, recombinant protein production and genetic engineering. This guide explains what transformation is, the steps involved, how to calculate transformation efficiency and the factors that influence success.Browse Molecular Biology Tools →PlasmidDNA UPTAKEHeat-shockOR ELECTROPORATIONCFU/µgEFFICIENCY UNITSelectionANTIBIOTICContentsKey TakeawaysWhat is Bacterial TransformationSteps Involved in Bacterial TransformationHow is …

The Spanish flu pandemic of 1918-1919 was the deadliest in history. It is estimated that up to 100 million people died from the virus, which is more than three times the number who died in World War I. The pandemic began in Spain, but quickly spread around the world. Despite the fact that the 1918 flu was not concentrated to one location, it became known throughout the world as the Spanish flu because Spain was severely affected by it. In some areas, as many as one out of every four people contracted the virus and died. The cause of the Spanish flu remains a mystery to this day, but scientists believe it may have been a mutated form of H1N1 influenza. In 1918, a new influen …

What is the blood-brain barrier? The Blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a system of vessels that acts as a structural and chemical barrier between the brain and the rest of the body's circulation. It is composed of a layer of endothelial cells (ECs), which line the interior surface of blood vessels, and their associated tight junctions (TJs). Tight junctions are protein complexes that seal the spaces between adjacent ECs and prevent the passage of blood cells and large molecules from one side of the blood vessel to the other. The BBB is not a static structure. It can be opened or closed in response to various stimuli. For example, the BBB becomes more permeable during inflammation, …

Leukemia Inhibitory Factor and JAK-STAT Signalling Pathway Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) is a cytokine that belongs to the interleukin-6 (IL-6) family of cytokines. Other members of this family include IL- 11, oncostatin M, and ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF). LIF was first identified in 1981 as a hematopoietic factor that could stimulate the growth of leukaemia cells in culture. LIF has been shown to be involved in the development, maintenance, and function of various tissues and organs, including the immune system, nervous system, endocrine system, and reproductive system. Leukemia Inhibitory factor signalling pathway overview LIF uses the JAK-STAT pathway to signal …

Pyroptosis is an immunogenic form of cell death, meaning that it triggers an immune response. This makes pyroptosis a potentially promising target for immunotherapies that aim to boost the immune system's response to cancer cells and other invaders. In this article, we will discuss pyroptosis in more detail, compare it to apoptosis and explore its potential as a therapeutic target. What is Pyroptosis ? Pyroptosis is a type of programmed cell death that occurs in response to infection or other cellular stresses. It is characterized by inflammatory cytokine release, membrane rupture, and cell lysis. Pyroptosis was first described in 2004 by Steinman and …

The Ebola virus has been in the news a lot lately, but many people still don't know what it is or how it spreads. In this blog post, we will discuss the basics of the Ebola virus: what it is, how it is spread, and the symptoms. The Ebola virus is a virus that causes hemorrhagic fever, which is a severe and often fatal illness. The Ebola virus is spread through contact with the blood or body fluids of an infected animal, such as a monkey, chimpanzee, or bat. It can also be spread to humans through contact with the blood or body fluids of an infected person. 'Zaire ebolavirus' commonly known as 'Ebola virus', is one of six recognized species in the genus Ebolavirus. EBOV, al …

Esophageal cancer is a type of cancer that affects the esophagus, which is the tube that carries food and liquids from your mouth to your stomach. Esophageal cancer can cause many different symptoms, depending on the stage of the disease. Did you know that esophageal cancer is the sixth most common type of cancer in the world? In this blog post, we will discuss the symptoms, treatment, and prevention of esophageal cancer. Types of Esophageal cancer Esophageal cancer is classified according to the type of cells that are involved. The cancer begins within the inner layer of the esophagus and may spread to other layers of the esophagus and other parts of …

In this blog post, we will review prostate cancer markers and what you should look for in your results. Prostate antigen marker (PSA) and p63 are the most common markers found in prostate cancer patients. The p504s immunostain is a relatively new marker that has shown promising results in early detection of prostate cancer. What is prostate cancer ? Prostate cancer is the most common type of cancer in men. It is a cancer that starts in the prostate, a small gland in the male reproductive system. The prostate is located just below the bladder and in front of the rectum. The prostate produces a fluid that helps to nourish and transport sperm during ejacu …

Metabolism · Biochemistry Guide 10 Steps of Glycolysis: Enzymes, Diagram & ATP Yield The complete ten-step pathway that converts one glucose molecule into two pyruvate — with every enzyme, substrate and energy change, plus the validated assay kits to measure it in your own samples. Browse Glycolysis Assay Kits → 10ENZYMATIC STEPS +2NET ATP / GLUCOSE 2NADH PRODUCED 2PYRUVATE MOLECULES What is glycolysis? Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration and the primary source of ATP under anaerobic conditions. …