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Pyroptosis is an immunogenic form of cell death, meaning that it triggers an immune response. This makes pyroptosis a potentially promising target for immunotherapies that aim to boost the immune system's response to cancer cells and other invaders. In this article, we will discuss pyroptosis in more detail, compare it to apoptosis and explore its potential as a therapeutic target. What is Pyroptosis ? Pyroptosis is a type of programmed cell death that occurs in response to infection or other cellular stresses. It is characterized by inflammatory cytokine release, membrane rupture, and cell lysis. Pyroptosis was first described in 2004 by Steinman and …

The Ebola virus has been in the news a lot lately, but many people still don't know what it is or how it spreads. In this blog post, we will discuss the basics of the Ebola virus: what it is, how it is spread, and the symptoms. The Ebola virus is a virus that causes hemorrhagic fever, which is a severe and often fatal illness. The Ebola virus is spread through contact with the blood or body fluids of an infected animal, such as a monkey, chimpanzee, or bat. It can also be spread to humans through contact with the blood or body fluids of an infected person. 'Zaire ebolavirus' commonly known as 'Ebola virus', is one of six recognized species in the genus Ebolavirus. EBOV, al …

Esophageal cancer is a type of cancer that affects the esophagus, which is the tube that carries food and liquids from your mouth to your stomach. Esophageal cancer can cause many different symptoms, depending on the stage of the disease. Did you know that esophageal cancer is the sixth most common type of cancer in the world? In this blog post, we will discuss the symptoms, treatment, and prevention of esophageal cancer. Types of Esophageal cancer Esophageal cancer is classified according to the type of cells that are involved. The cancer begins within the inner layer of the esophagus and may spread to other layers of the esophagus and other parts of …

In this blog post, we will review prostate cancer markers and what you should look for in your results. Prostate antigen marker (PSA) and p63 are the most common markers found in prostate cancer patients. The p504s immunostain is a relatively new marker that has shown promising results in early detection of prostate cancer. What is prostate cancer ? Prostate cancer is the most common type of cancer in men. It is a cancer that starts in the prostate, a small gland in the male reproductive system. The prostate is located just below the bladder and in front of the rectum. The prostate produces a fluid that helps to nourish and transport sperm during ejacu …

Glycolysis is a fundamental metabolic pathway that involves the breakdown of glucose to produce energy. This process can occur through two main pathways: aerobic and anaerobic glycolysis. Both pathways play crucial roles in cellular metabolism, but they operate under different conditions and result in distinct end products. Key Takeaways: Glycolysis is a cellular process converting glucose to energy. It includes key steps like substrate-level phosphorylation and glucose-phosphate conversion. Enzymes like hexokinase and aldolase catalyze glycolysis stages. Glycolysis products include pyruvate, NADH, and ATP, vital for cell functions. Disorders related to glycolysis include dia …

window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_V2_ELEMENTS = window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_V2_ELEMENTS || new Array(); window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_V2_ELEMENTS.push({ uuid: 's-19118a5d-7dea-4fc9-8267-6237960845ca' }) The Th1 Pathway In this guide, we will explore the differences between TH1 and TH2 cells, their crucial roles in the immune system, and the contributions of cytokines and transcription factors to their differentiation. Furthermore, we will examine some common diseases associated with these cell types and possible treatment options, providing a comprehensive overview of T helper cell biology and its relevance to human health. Key Takeaways T helper cells (TH1 and TH2) ar …

The flu is a highly contagious virus that affects the respiratory system. It can cause fever, muscle aches, and coughing. In some cases, it can lead to more serious health complications such as pneumonia. Each year, the flu virus mutates, meaning people must recieve a new vaccine against new strains of the virus. One important factor in determining how severe the coming flu season will be is the type of hemagglutinin (HA) subtype involved. In this blog post, we will discuss influenza HA subtypes and flu virus strains. Flu virus Strains: There are three types of flu viruses: A, B, and C. Influenza A is the most prevalent variety of flu virus. It causes …

Notch signalling pathway review The Notch signalling pathway is a highly conserved intercellular signalling pathway that regulates various cellular processes. The Notch receptor is a transmembrane protein that is activated by the binding of Notch ligands, which are secreted proteins. There are four known Notch ligands: Jagged, Delta, Serrate, and Lag-related protein. Notch receptors are activated by the binding of a Notch ligand to the receptor's extracellular domain. This binding results in the proteolytic cleavage of the receptor by furin-like proteases. The cleaved Notch intracellular domain (NICD) of the receptor translocates to the nucleus where it interacts with transcri …

Mouse monoclonal antibodies are a valuable tool in the biomedical field. They can be used for a variety of applications, from research to clinical diagnostics. In this blog post, we will discuss the basics of mouse monoclonal antibody production, including its protocol and application. The major difference between monoclonal antibodies and polyclonal antibodies is that monoclonal antibodies can have a single-specificity, meaning they only bind to the same epitope while polyclonal antibodies can bind to multiple epitopes and are generally synthesized by several different plasma cell lineages. Bispecific monoclonal antibodies can also be developed by wedging two epitopes from …

TUNEL Staining : The method of choice for measuring cell death In this article we will discuss everything you need to know about the TUNEL staining assay. We'll start by explaining what TUNEL staining is and how it works. Next, we'll discuss the different types of TUNEL stains available. Then, we'll take a look at the advantages of TUNEL staining over other apoptosis assays. Finally, we'll provide some tips for performing TUNEL staining correctly. Key Takeaways TUNEL assay detects apoptotic cells through DNA strand cleavage and labeling with fluorescent dye. Proper cell fixation and permeabilization are crucial for accurate results. Two types of TUNEL stain …

Explore the intricate world of Insulin Signaling and Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs), pivotal in regulating metabolism and influencing diseases like cancer and atherosclerosis. Key Takeaways: Insulin signaling involves receptor activation, signal transduction, and gene expression. Insulin receptors, a type of Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK), regulate metabolism and cell responses. The Ras/MAP kinase and PI3K pathways are crucial in insulin signaling. Insulin signaling impacts atherosclerosis and cancer, with RTK inhibitors showing therapeutic potential. window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_ELEMENTS = window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_ELEMENTS || new Array(); window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_E …

What is CD52? Cluster Of Differentiation 52 (CD52) is a highly expressed membrane glycoprotein which is present on the surface of immune cells such as lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils and dendritic cells. The proliferation of CD52 markers enables researchers to distinguish between healthy and cancerous cells in the medical field. The peptide length of CD52 is 12 amino acid which is anchored to glycosylphosphatidylinositol. As a result of its negative charge researchers believe this molecule has an anti-adhesion function, allowing cells to migrate freely. It is known that CD52 binds with the immunoreceptor tyrosine based inhibitory …

What is CD31? CD31, also known as PECAM-1, was originally described as a cell surface antigen present on platelets and megakaryocytes. CD31 is a member of transmembrane glycoproteins expressed on cells of all lineages within the vascular system. CD31 antigen belongs to PECAM proteins that are now recognized as belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily because they contain large numbers of extracellular immunoglobulin domains with conserved C2-type calcium binding sites. Where is CD31 expressed and what does it bind to? CD31 is expressed on CD34+ hematopoietic stem cells, CD14+ monocyt …

Acute pancreatitis (AP) is a condition in which activated enzymes and inflammatory mediators released from the pancreas cause damage to the pancreas and surrounding tissues. AP is further divided into two main categories, a mild form called interstitial oedematous pancreatitis or a severe form called necrotising pancreatitis. Interstitial oedematous pancreatitis accounts for 80% of AP cases and the pancreatic inflammation involved usually resolves itself. However, necrotising pancreatitis resembles necrosis of the pancreas which can result in further complications. AP starts with inflammation which can lead to damage of affected organs through multiple organ failure (MOF) and …

Fenofibrate, also known as FEN, is a drug that is used to lower cholesterol levels. It works by blocking the absorption of dietary cholesterol in the small intestine and therefore, reduces the amount of cholesterol that enters the bloodstream. Fenofibrate has been shown to be effective in reducing LDL (bad) cholesterol levels by up to 20% and it is approved for use in the United States and Europe. Fenofibrate is a safe and effective drug and it can be used in conjunction with other medications to help reduce LDL levels. The mechanism of action of fenofibrate is not fully understood, but it is believed to work by inhibiting the activity of a protein called Niemann-Pick C1-Like …

Ovarian cancer is a set of malignancies that start in the ovaries, as well as adjacent portions of the fallopian tubes and peritoneum. Women have two ovaries, one on each side of the uterus. The ovaries produce reproductive hormones and egg cells. Thousands of women each year get an ovarian cancer diagnosis and this type of cancer ranks fifth in cancer deaths among women. Cyclophosphamide is an effective alkylating chemotherapy agent used to treat ovarian cancer. Although cyclophosphamide has many benefits cyclophosphamide-induced ovarian toxicity is a side effect of treatment with this drug. This type of toxicity can cause infertility and increase the risk of developing can …

Preeclampsia is a serious condition that can develop during pregnancy. It is marked by high blood pressure and the presence of protein in the urine and can cause serious problems for both mother and baby if it is not treated. A recent study found that preeclampsia is associated with an increased risk of heart disease in later life. It can lead to high blood pressure and diabetes, which both increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. It may also cause damage to arteries and reduce blood flow to the placenta (leading to low birth weight). Therefore, it’s essential that pregnant women should be screened for preeclampsia at their first prenatal visit so that treatment can …

What are Stem Cells? Stem cells are primitive, undifferentiated, and unspecialised cells that are found in multicellular organisms. Stem cells can be thought of as "uncommitted cells", as they have not yet assumed a specific function in the body. Embryonic stem (ES) cells are present everywhere during early development before the formation of organs and organ systems. Stem cells are stimulated by their environment into becoming specialized cells, such as muscle cells or brain cells. On top of being able to differentiate into the different types of cells and tissues that make up the human body, stem cells maintain their ab …

window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_ELEMENTS = window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_ELEMENTS || new Array(); window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_ELEMENTS.push({ hoverImage: '', uuid: 's-9d0e3f85-cf60-457e-b32a-268d931a22ba' }) PD-1 & PD-L1 interaction between T-cells and tumour cells. What are PD-1 and PD-L1? PD-1, also known as programmed cell death 1, is a receptor expressed on the surface of T cells and plays a pivotal role in immune homeostasis, by keeping overstimulated responses at bay while safeguarding tissues from any unintended destruction. In essence, Programmed Cell Death Protein 1 (PD-1) keeps the body's immunity balanced. The ligands for PD-1 are programmed death-ligand 1 (P …

Introduction Discover the multifaceted role of CD33, a critical player in immune function and disease, shaping our approach to treating cancers and neurodegenerative conditions. Key Takeaways CD33, a key glycoprotein in immune responses, is crucial in cancer, especially AML, and neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's. It serves as a therapeutic target, offering avenues for innovative treatments. What is CD33? CD33 is a transmembrane glycoprotein belonging to the sialic acid-binding immunoglobulin-like lectin (Siglec) family. Siglecs are a group of cell surface receptors involved in cell-cell interactions and immune responses. CD33 …

by Ryan Wallis, PhD Aging and Disease Imagine a world where everything you do is missing just a little piece and as time goes on you start to lose sense entirely. This is the devastating world of neurodegeneration, a collective term for diseases which include Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. Conditions like these have an enormous impact on both the individuals who suffer from them and their families, who must watch their loved ones ebb away into a shell of their former selves. These conditions are as cruel as they are debilitating and, alarmingly, they are on the rise (Alzheimer’s Association, 2017). In fact, almost all conditions associated with ageing ar …

by Ryan Wallis, PhD student, QMUL, Blizard Institute The microscopic world of cell biology was first explored by Robert Hooke in the 17th century and published in his work, Micrographia, in 1665. He marvelled at the revelation that an organism such as a cork plant was actually comprised of tiny “Cellula” resembling the small chambers occupied by monks. His insight into this invisible domain was the first in a line of discoveries which have transformed our understanding of biology, health and disease. As technology has progressed, scientific discovery has flourished, and the invention of electron microscopy has allowed us to observe the world on an even smaller …

What are MHC Class I molecules? The MHC class I is a glycoprotein that is expressed on all nucleated cells of the human body. MHC class I are important in disease defense against viruses, bacteria, parasites and neoplasms. MHC class I facilitates the presentation of peptides of 8-10 amino acids in length to cytotoxic T cells. MHC class I has two transmembrane proteins, HLA-A, HLA-B and HLA-C. MHC class I is produced in MHC class I gene clusters. MHC class I are encoded by HLA-A, HLA-B and HLA-C. Key Takeaways MHC Class I molecules present peptides to cytotoxic T cells and are found on all nucleated cells. MHC Class II molecules are crucial for antigen presentation …

What is Parkinson’s disease? Parkinson's disease can be seen as a neurodegenerative disease because it is associated with the loss of nerve cells in the substantia nigra pars compacta that produce dopamine. Parkinson's disease is a long-term chronic and progressive movement disorder that slowly develops over time. Parkinson's has been called "the great imitator" because so many of its symptoms mimic other diseases. Parkinson's disease is characterized by resting tremor, rigidity, slowness of movement and impaired balance and coordination. Parkinson's disease primarily affects movement and has no cure, but medications and therapies can …