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Mouse monoclonal antibodies are a valuable tool in the biomedical field. They can be used for a variety of applications, from research to clinical diagnostics. In this blog post, we will discuss the basics of mouse monoclonal antibody production, including its protocol and application. The major difference between monoclonal antibodies and polyclonal antibodies is that monoclonal antibodies can have a single-specificity, meaning they only bind to the same epitope while polyclonal antibodies can bind to multiple epitopes and are generally synthesized by several different plasma cell lineages. Bispecific monoclonal antibodies can also be developed by wedging two epitopes from …

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What is CD52? Cluster Of Differentiation 52 (CD52) is a highly expressed membrane glycoprotein which is present on the surface of immune cells such as lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils and dendritic cells. The proliferation of CD52 markers enables researchers to distinguish between healthy and cancerous cells in the medical field. The peptide length of CD52 is 12 amino acid which is anchored to glycosylphosphatidylinositol. As a result of its negative charge researchers believe this molecule has an anti-adhesion function, allowing cells to migrate freely. It is known that CD52 binds with the immunoreceptor tyrosine based inhibitory …

What is CD31? CD31, also known as PECAM-1, was originally described as a cell surface antigen present on platelets and megakaryocytes. CD31 is a member of transmembrane glycoproteins expressed on cells of all lineages within the vascular system. CD31 antigen belongs to PECAM proteins that are now recognized as belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily because they contain large numbers of extracellular immunoglobulin domains with conserved C2-type calcium binding sites. Where is CD31 expressed and what does it bind to? CD31 is expressed on CD34+ hematopoietic stem cells, CD14+ monocyt …

Acute pancreatitis (AP) is a condition in which activated enzymes and inflammatory mediators released from the pancreas cause damage to the pancreas and surrounding tissues. AP is further divided into two main categories, a mild form called interstitial oedematous pancreatitis or a severe form called necrotising pancreatitis. Interstitial oedematous pancreatitis accounts for 80% of AP cases and the pancreatic inflammation involved usually resolves itself. However, necrotising pancreatitis resembles necrosis of the pancreas which can result in further complications. AP starts with inflammation which can lead to damage of affected organs through multiple organ failure (MOF) and …

Fenofibrate, also known as FEN, is a drug that is used to lower cholesterol levels. It works by blocking the absorption of dietary cholesterol in the small intestine and therefore, reduces the amount of cholesterol that enters the bloodstream. Fenofibrate has been shown to be effective in reducing LDL (bad) cholesterol levels by up to 20% and it is approved for use in the United States and Europe. Fenofibrate is a safe and effective drug and it can be used in conjunction with other medications to help reduce LDL levels. The mechanism of action of fenofibrate is not fully understood, but it is believed to work by inhibiting the activity of a protein called Niemann-Pick C1-Like …

Ovarian cancer is a set of malignancies that start in the ovaries, as well as adjacent portions of the fallopian tubes and peritoneum. Women have two ovaries, one on each side of the uterus. The ovaries produce reproductive hormones and egg cells. Thousands of women each year get an ovarian cancer diagnosis and this type of cancer ranks fifth in cancer deaths among women. Cyclophosphamide is an effective alkylating chemotherapy agent used to treat ovarian cancer. Although cyclophosphamide has many benefits cyclophosphamide-induced ovarian toxicity is a side effect of treatment with this drug. This type of toxicity can cause infertility and increase the risk of developing can …

Preeclampsia is a serious condition that can develop during pregnancy. It is marked by high blood pressure and the presence of protein in the urine and can cause serious problems for both mother and baby if it is not treated. A recent study found that preeclampsia is associated with an increased risk of heart disease in later life. It can lead to high blood pressure and diabetes, which both increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. It may also cause damage to arteries and reduce blood flow to the placenta (leading to low birth weight). Therefore, it’s essential that pregnant women should be screened for preeclampsia at their first prenatal visit so that treatment can …

What are Stem Cells? Stem cells are primitive, undifferentiated, and unspecialised cells that are found in multicellular organisms. Stem cells can be thought of as "uncommitted cells", as they have not yet assumed a specific function in the body. Embryonic stem (ES) cells are present everywhere during early development before the formation of organs and organ systems. Stem cells are stimulated by their environment into becoming specialized cells, such as muscle cells or brain cells. On top of being able to differentiate into the different types of cells and tissues that make up the human body, stem cells maintain their ab …

window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_ELEMENTS = window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_ELEMENTS || new Array(); window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_ELEMENTS.push({ hoverImage: '', uuid: 's-9d0e3f85-cf60-457e-b32a-268d931a22ba' }) PD-1 & PD-L1 interaction between T-cells and tumour cells. What are PD-1 and PD-L1? PD-1, also known as programmed cell death 1, is a receptor expressed on the surface of T cells and plays a pivotal role in immune homeostasis, by keeping overstimulated responses at bay while safeguarding tissues from any unintended destruction. In essence, Programmed Cell Death Protein 1 (PD-1) keeps the body's immunity balanced. The ligands for PD-1 are programmed death-ligand 1 (P …

Introduction Discover the multifaceted role of CD33, a critical player in immune function and disease, shaping our approach to treating cancers and neurodegenerative conditions. Key Takeaways CD33, a key glycoprotein in immune responses, is crucial in cancer, especially AML, and neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's. It serves as a therapeutic target, offering avenues for innovative treatments. What is CD33? CD33 is a transmembrane glycoprotein belonging to the sialic acid-binding immunoglobulin-like lectin (Siglec) family. Siglecs are a group of cell surface receptors involved in cell-cell interactions and immune responses. CD33 …

by Ryan Wallis, PhD Aging and Disease Imagine a world where everything you do is missing just a little piece and as time goes on you start to lose sense entirely. This is the devastating world of neurodegeneration, a collective term for diseases which include Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. Conditions like these have an enormous impact on both the individuals who suffer from them and their families, who must watch their loved ones ebb away into a shell of their former selves. These conditions are as cruel as they are debilitating and, alarmingly, they are on the rise (Alzheimer’s Association, 2017). In fact, almost all conditions associated with ageing ar …

by Ryan Wallis, PhD student, QMUL, Blizard Institute The microscopic world of cell biology was first explored by Robert Hooke in the 17th century and published in his work, Micrographia, in 1665. He marvelled at the revelation that an organism such as a cork plant was actually comprised of tiny “Cellula” resembling the small chambers occupied by monks. His insight into this invisible domain was the first in a line of discoveries which have transformed our understanding of biology, health and disease. As technology has progressed, scientific discovery has flourished, and the invention of electron microscopy has allowed us to observe the world on an even smaller …

What are MHC Class I molecules? The MHC class I is a glycoprotein that is expressed on all nucleated cells of the human body. MHC class I are important in disease defense against viruses, bacteria, parasites and neoplasms. MHC class I facilitates the presentation of peptides of 8-10 amino acids in length to cytotoxic T cells. MHC class I has two transmembrane proteins, HLA-A, HLA-B and HLA-C. MHC class I is produced in MHC class I gene clusters. MHC class I are encoded by HLA-A, HLA-B and HLA-C. Key Takeaways MHC Class I molecules present peptides to cytotoxic T cells and are found on all nucleated cells. MHC Class II molecules are crucial for antigen presentation …

What is Parkinson’s disease? Parkinson's disease can be seen as a neurodegenerative disease because it is associated with the loss of nerve cells in the substantia nigra pars compacta that produce dopamine. Parkinson's disease is a long-term chronic and progressive movement disorder that slowly develops over time. Parkinson's has been called "the great imitator" because so many of its symptoms mimic other diseases. Parkinson's disease is characterized by resting tremor, rigidity, slowness of movement and impaired balance and coordination. Parkinson's disease primarily affects movement and has no cure, but medications and therapies can …

CAR T-cell therapy CAR (Chimeric Antigen Receptor) T-cell Therapy is a type of cancer treatment. CAR T-cells are made in the laboratory and they have an artificially created receptor on the surface of T-Cells (white blood cells). These engineered receptors allow for the body's own immune system to target specific cancers. CAR T-cells consist of two classes: CARs that target surface antigens on tumor cells, CAR-Ts, and CARs that target cytokine receptors expressed on T-cells. CAR-Ts are the most common CARs used in CAR T-cell therapy. Anti-CD19 CAR T-cell therapy has gained major success throughout the years and it led to the approval of the therapy in 2017 against B-cell malignan …

Antibodies are a special class of Y shaped proteins that help guard your body from invading viruses and bacteria. They do this by either neutralizing the dangerous substance or marking it for destruction. Five classes of antibodies There are five antibody types called IgA, IgG, IgM, IgE and IgD. Each antibody type is made up of two heavy chains and two light chains also known as an 'immunoglobulin'. Every antibody has a unique tip on its end known as the paratope which contains the key to fighting against invaders which could be a virus or bacterium. The middle section of the antibody is called the constant region which att …

Antigen's are foreign molecules recognised by the immune system. Antigens can be protein, carbohydrate, lipid or nucleic acid molecules. Examples include viruses and bacteria as well as fragments of human cells such as those infected by a virus or damaged by radiation or oxidants. Antigens also include artificial substances such as drugs and other xenobiotics (chemicals not normally capable of being taken up by living systems). Antigens are associated with different types of MHC molecule on the surface of cells which allows them to be identified by T lymphocytes. Antibodies are Y shaped molecules than bind Antigens Antibodies are Y shaped prot …

A neuron is a cell that processes and transmits information through electrical and chemical signals. There are trillions of them in the human brain, which is able to carry out so many complex tasks without conscious effort. These cells are the primary building blocks for AI because they are how all biological organisms process information about their surroundings. The key to understanding how these fascinating creatures work will be the first step towards creating intelligent machines with human-like cognition. Parts of a Neuron Neurons have three primary parts: dendrites, cell body, and axon (in this order). Dendrites detect changes in electrical potential across the surface of neu …

Microglia Astrocytes Oligodendrocytes Glial Cells Glial cells are the most abundant cell type in your brain. Previously glial cells were thought to be non-functional glue for neurons, however, years of research have highlighted their key role in regulating neuron activity. The main glial cells are microglia, astrocytes and oligodendrocyte cells. Glia of the nervous system are divided into two main types: white matter glia and grey matter glia. White matter glia support nerve fibers that transmit information between different r …

Interleukin signaling is involved in a number of biological processes, including cell growth and differentiation, inflammation and immunity. Interleukins are glycoproteins which act on hematopoietic cells to regulate immune responses or target cells for destruction by the immune system. Interleukins mediate communication between cells through a complex network of receptors. Interleukin receptors are members of a large family of cell surface molecules called cytokine receptors. Interleukins bind to the receptor and cause it to dimerize with another interleukin receptor, which in turn stimulates activity within the target cells. Interleukins play a major role in host defense against …

CD Markers Cluster of Differentiation (CD) markers play an important role in the differentiation of B cells, T cells and NK (natural killer) cells. These markers are often responsible for the identification of certain cancers and tumors, resulting in CD markers being good candidates for cancer therapies. CTLA-4 Cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (CTLA-4)(CD152) is a protein receptor found on T cells. Both CTLA-4 and CD28 bind to B7-1/2 on antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as dendritic cells and B cells. CTLA-4 has been shown to bind B7-1/2 with a higher affinity than CD28 d …

Chemokines are highly conserved cytokines that control the movement of cells around the body. All 45 members of the chemokine family can be divided into 4 subfamilies depending on their structure and presence of cysteine motifs (the CC chemokines, CXC CX3C and XC) and are recognised by chemokine receptors, G-protein coupled receptors with 7 transmembrane domains predominantly found on the surface of leukocytes. Upon binding of the chemokine to a cognate chemokine receptor, the receptor undergoes a conformational change exposing the highly conserved DRYLAIV domain. The exposed motif binds to neighbouring G-proteins, kick-starting a signal transduction cascade which will ulti …

Toll-Like Receptors The innate immune response has come under the spotlight in recent years due to its central role in propagating the pathogenesis of several diseases, and specifically in driving neurodegenerative aetiology (1-3). Toll-like receptors (TLRs), the mammalian homologue of the Drosophila melanogaster Toll, are highly conserved innate immune receptors and master regulators of the cellular innate immune response (4-6). Research by several groups in the early 1990s discovered the pivotal role of TLRs in the initiation and propagation of the inflammatory signalling in response to bacterial, viral or microbial nucleic acids, kn …