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Flow Cytometry Protocol The meaning is in the name: Flow = in motion, Cyto = cells, Metry = measure. What is Flow Cytometry? Flow cytometry measures the properties of cells while in a fluid stream. It enables single cell analysis of complex cellular systems (e.g. blood) very rapidly (100s of cells/second) it also allows you to look at various cellular properties such as size, granularity, fluorescence intensity per cell. Flow Cytometry can be used for cell counting, cell sorting, biomarker detection and protein engineering. Cell components are fluorescently labelled and then excited by the laser to emit light at varying wave …

What is Cell Synchronisation? Cell synchronisation is a process by which cells at different stages of the cell cycle in a culture are brought to the same phase. Cell synchronisation is used to study the progression of cells through the cell cycle. How are Cells Synchronised? Cells can be synchronised and separated in 2 different ways: Chemical Blockade Physical Fractionation 1. Chemical Blockade As the names suggests this method uses chemicals such as Thymidine to block metabolic reactions. This can be achieved through inhibition of DNA synthesis largely during the S-Phase of the cell cycle. Inhibitors such as thymidine, aminopterin …

Mycoprotein is an alternative source of protein that can be used in place of meat. It is made from a fungi called Fusarium venenatum, and is consumed by vegetarians and vegans as a meat substitute. It is also a good source of iron and B vitamins. Mycoprotein has a chewy texture and can be used in many different recipes. Mycoprotein can be found in many different stores and can be found in the refrigerated or frozen section. Mycoprotein is also available online. Mycoprotein can be used in many different recipes. It can be cooked and used as a meat substitute in burgers, tacos, stir-fries, and more. Mycoprotein can also be used as an ingredient in pasta dishes, soups, and salads. If …

Fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) is a cutting-edge technique used to isolate individual cells from a sample and analyse their properties. In this guide, we will discuss the basics of FACS sorting protocol and how it can be used in a variety of applications. FACS is revolutionizing the field of cell biology and allowing researchers to isolate single cells with an unprecedented accuracy of 99.99%. This makes it an ideal tool for applications where cell purity is important. Key Takeaways FACS enables precise isolation and analysis of individual cells with an accuracy of 99.99%. It uses fluorescent dyes and flow cytometry to sort cells based on va …

Kinases, key enzymes in cellular signaling, phosphorylate proteins to regulate crucial processes, and their modulation has significant implications in disease treatment. Key Takeaways: Kinases are enzymes that phosphorylate proteins, influencing cell processes. They are categorized into serine/threonine, tyrosine, and dual specificity kinases. Kinases are crucial in cell signaling, growth, metabolism, and homeostasis. Dysregulation of kinases is linked to diseases like cancer and neurodegenerative disorders. Protein kinase inhibitors hold therapeutic potential in treating various diseases. What are Kinases? Understanding their Functions, Types and Structure Kinases are …

Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF) is a protein that stimulates cell growth and differentiation by binding to its receptor epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) which triggers ligand-induced dimerization which activates the intrinsic protein-tyrosine kinase activity of EGFR. This in turn initiates a signal transduction cascade that results in various biochemical changes within the cell being targeted by EGF. This ultimately leads to DNA synthesis and cell proliferation. Members of this protein family are all similar due to their shared structural and functional characteristics. Each member of the EGF family have at least one common structural motif, the EGF domain, which is character …

SARS-CoV-2, the causative viral agent of the novel coronavirus disease COVID-19, has sparked a global effort for creating prophylactic and therapeutic interventions. The following five companies have released information on upcoming treatments or preventative measures. 1. Gilead — Remdesivir Remdesivir (GS-5734) is a broad spectrum antiviral nucleotide analogue which has shown promising results as a therapeutic in compassionate-use cases. Currently, it is in Phase 3 clinical trials across Asia and “other countries...with high numbers of diagnosed cases”. Two Phase 3 trials are running concurrently: the firs …

What is COVID-19 COVID-19, the disease caused by the coronavirus named SARS-CoV-2, first identified in Wuhan, China in December 2019 has spread globally, resulting in the ongoing 2019-2020 coronavirus pandemic. This disease is spread by the release of aerosol droplets that can be transmitted via person-to-person if they are within two meters of an infected person for 15 minutes or longer. The most common symptoms of coronavirus are fever, cough, shortness and breath or breathing difficulties. In more severe cases, pneumonia or severe acute respiratory syndrome may occur and these cases require hospitalisation. …

Seroconversion Implications in SARS-CoV-2 Diagnostic Testing Key Points: COVID-19, the pandemic coronavirus disease caused by SARS-CoV-2, has been shown to follow a typical seroconversion and immunoglobulin class (isotype) switching time course, according to preliminary data. A strong positive correlation between clinical severity and antibody titer two weeks after symptom onset was reported. COVID-19 Background: SARS-CoV-2 Structure & Infiltration SARS-CoV-2, the causative viral agent of the disease COVID-19, is a coronavirus …

COVID-19 Antibody Testing Antibody Production in COVID-19 COVID-19, the novel coronavirus disease caused by SARS-CoV-2, can be detected in patients using serological testing. COVID-19 has been shown to follow a standard seroconversion curve. This means that IgM antibodies are produced approximately 12 days after symptom onset by B cell derived plasma cells. These IgM antibodies are later outnumbered by the more robust IgG type antibodies, which mark the generation of a maturing or secondary immune response. The process of switching from primarily IgM to primarily IgG antibodies in the serum …

Workplace Testing for COVID-19 Corporate Testing for COVID-19 The impact of COVID-19 on the economy has been staggering. Current projections imply that the effects of the viral outbreak will be felt for some time. Low cost, high throughput testing has the potential to help institutions and individuals make the best choices for themselves and others.   Simple, point of care assays are the best option for workplace testing. Lateral flow immunoassays are a particularly good choice because they require minimal laboratory equipment and can yield results in as little as 15 minutes. In additi …

Nod-like receptors Nod like receptors (NLRs) are a versatile family of relatively recently discovered intracellular receptors which have a broad range of functions in humans, ranging from the regulation of antigen presentation and modulation of inflammation to embryonic development and sensing cellular metabolic changes (Motta et al 2015). Evolutionarily, NLRs are well conserved and orthologs are found across much of the animal kingdom (Lange et al 2011). The NLR family in humans is relatively diverse, comprising of 22 members with specific functions dependent on ligand specificity and effector functions, each determined by individu …

Before I even started my PhD I was already thinking about carrying out PostDoc in a foreign country and had my sights set on going to the US. I had previously carried out a degree in Genetics at Trinity College Dublin and now I was starting a PhD just across the city at University College Dublin. Like most scientists I loved to travel, I had already been to the US to carry out undergraduate research at the University of California, Davis so I decided looking for a postdoc position in the US would be the goal.However, like everything in life nothing is certain and when I saw an advertisement come up for a postdoc position at the department of genetics in the University of Cambridge f …

Writer’s block can be a big stumbling block when trying to write your PhD thesis, grant or a paper you are trying to get publish. During the early stages of writing my PhD thesis I suffered a lot from writer’s block; however, as soon as I got into a rhythm of writing, writer’s block was a thing of the past as I zoomed through page upon page of my introduction. Looking back on it now I realize what elements resulted in me having writer’s block and how I overcame it. Therefore I thought I would write this article to talk about some of the elements that stopped me putting pen to paper and provide tips for writer’s block. Not knowing …

Spindle assembly checkpoint The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC), or mitotic checkpoint, is the main cell cycle control mechanism that governs mitosis. Incorrect spindle attachment causes the spindle assembly checkpoint to generate a wait anaphase signal that prevents the activation of the anaphase promoting complex (APC), an ubiquitin E3 ligase essential for progression of the cell cycle. Conserved components of the mammalian SAC include Bub1 (Cahill et al., 1998), BubR1 [Chan et al., 1998], Bub3 [Taylor et al.,ÿ1998], Mad1[Jin et al., 1998], Mad2 [Li and Benezra, 1996] and CENP-E [Weaver etÿal., 2003]. The checkpoint becomes activated as a …

What is a vaccine? A vaccine is a pharmacological product that gives the recieving patient's immune system a chance to learn how to fight infection with decreased risk of illness. Vaccination involves administering antigenic material (the vaccine), resulting in immunity to the disease. Vaccine dosing and the need for boosters Certain vaccines require boosters at appropriate intervals to maintain effective immunity. Boosters simulate pathogen re-infection, providing antibody-producing cells with another chance to build up immunity. For example, the 6 in 1 (diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, polio, Hib, Hep B) vaccine needs to be given at 2 months, 4 months, and 6 months. This is …

T Cell Types, Activation, Polarization & Function A comprehensive guide to T cells! window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_ELEMENTS = window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_ELEMENTS || new Array(); window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_ELEMENTS.push({ uuid: 's-97bbabca-f192-454c-a1c7-98716f6875bf' }) Introduction T-cells, vital components of the immune system, encompass various functions and types, including cytotoxic T cells, helper T cells, and regulatory T cells. Their activation and polarization play critical roles in immune responses. Understanding T-cell biology is essential for effective immune defense and therapeutic applications. Key Takeaways T-cells have d …

What is pharmacogenomics Pharmacogenomics is how DNA variation and drugs interact and how this can optimise patient health; this involves studying pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Pharmacokinetics is the variability of how the drug interacts with the body, e.g., absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination. Pharmacodynamics is the variability of the drug interactions with its effector molecules and variability in disease mechanisms. There are many different reasons for individual variability in drug response, although we will focus on examples of how the genome affects drug response. A patient with one of these variants may experience severe and life-threatening …

Novel Gene Therapies for Cystic Fibrosis Cystic Fibrosis Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an autosomal recessive, life-limiting disease resulting from gene mutations that encode the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). This gene is comprised of 27 exons and is located on chromosome 7. CFTR is a cAMP-regulated chloride channel located on the apical membrane of exocrine epithelial cells. CFTR is involved in regulating the epithelial sodium channel and bicarbonate transport. There are many different types of CFTR mutations that result in CF; lack of production; failure to reach the site of action; defects in gating; conductance; abnormally low channel numbers; and …

Ovarian cancer is the fourth most common cancer in women. Ovarian cancer is when the normal cells in the ovary change and grow to form a tumour. Because the ovaries are located deep within the pelvis, an expanding tumour there might harm neighbouring organs. This can include the bladder or the bowel. The ovaries are two tiny oval-shaped organs on each side of your womb in your lower abdomen (pelvis). The ovaries produce oestrogen and progesterone, two female sex hormones that regulate menstrual cycles. There are several types of ovarian cancer, but the most common is epithelial ovarian cancer. Types of Ovarian Cancer Epithelial ovarian cancer - Ovari …

Chronic myelogenous leukaemia (CML) is a myeloproliferative haematopoietic malignancy, characterised by a karyotypic abnormality present in more than 95% of cases known as the Philadelphia chromosome (Lozzio et al., 1975). CML has its origins in a common myeloid progenitor cell, which differentiates into erythrocytes, megakaryoctes, or granulocytes/monocytes (Fialkow et al., 1977). The Philadelphia Chromosome The Philadelphia chromosome was first karyotypically characterised in 1959 (Moorhead et al., 1960). It was demonstrated to be the result of a reciprocal translocation between the long arms of chromosomes 9 and 22 (Rowley, …

Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem in the world today. Antibiotics are becoming less and less effective as bacteria evolve to resist them. This poses a serious threat to human health, as common infections and diseases become harder to treat. In this blog post, we will discuss the causes of antibiotic resistance and its potential consequences for the future of human health. What is Antibiotic Resistance? Antibiotics, which are drugs that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria, have been used to treat bacterial illnesses since Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928. Antibiotic resistance is caused by the overuse and misuse of antibiotics …

If you've ever had a urinary tract infection, you know all about bacteria. These tiny organisms can invade your body and cause all sorts of problems. But what you may not know is that bacteria don't always travel alone - they often travel in packs called biofilms. In this blog post, we will discuss what biofilms are, how they form, and the dangers they pose to your health. We will also look at ways to prevent biofilm formation and how to protect yourself from these dangerous invaders. What are Biofilms? Biofilms are communities of microorganisms that attach to each other and to surfaces. These communities can contain hundreds or even thousands of diffe …

The tau protein is a hot topic in the scientific world right now. This little-known protein has been linked to Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and other neurodegenerative diseases. But what is it, exactly? And what does it do? What is the structure of tau proteins? The human gene that encodes for tau proteins is found on chromosome 17. Each tau protein is about 50-85 kiloDaltons in size and has around 0.01% of the total brain proteins. Tau consists of many domains that are important for its function, including: The N-terminal domain (which contains four microtubule-binding repeats) The proline-rich region (which is located between the microtubule-binding domain …