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Haematology · HaemostasisPlatelets: Formation, Structure, Activation and Clinical SignificancePlatelets are anucleate fragments shed from megakaryocytes, and they carry out primary haemostasis — adhering to damaged vessel wall, activating, and aggregating into a plug within seconds. This guide covers thrombopoiesis, the four structural zones, the receptors that mediate adhesion and aggregation, how activation is amplified, and the disorders and antiplatelet drugs that follow from each step.Browse platelet assays →150–450Normal count, ×109/L7–10 daysCirculating lifespanGPIIb/IIIaThe aggregation receptorCOX-1Makes thromboxane A2 on demandKey takeawaysPlatelets are anucleate cytoplasmic fragmen …

What is a Macrophage? Macrophages are indeed a type of phagocyte, responsible for engulfing and destroying foreign particles and cellular debris. They are larger cells with more cytoplasm and are found in various tissues throughout the body, where they serve as part of the innate immune response.. They play a crucial role in maintaining the body's defense mechanism by engulfing and digesting cellular debris, foreign substances, pathogens, and even cancer cells. This process, known as phagocytosis, involves the internalization of external agents into the macrophage cell. Apart from their phagocytic abilities, macrophages also act as potent signaling hubs in the immune system. They r …

Immunology · Myeloid CellsGranulocytes: Neutrophils, Eosinophils and BasophilsGranulocytes are the leukocytes with cytoplasmic granules and lobed nuclei — neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils. They are the fastest-responding arm of cellular immunity, and between them they handle bacterial infection, parasites and allergic inflammation. This guide covers each type, their granule contents and surface markers, how they develop and are recruited, and what immature granulocytes on a blood count actually mean.Browse granulocyte reagents →40–70%Neutrophils, of circulating leukocytes1–4%Eosinophils<1%Basophils — the rarest leukocyte~8 hNeutrophil circulating half-lifeKey takeawaysThere are thre …

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Immunology · Innate LymphocytesNatural Killer Cells: Receptors, Subsets and FunctionNK cells kill without prior sensitisation and without antigen-specific receptors, using a balance of activating and inhibitory signals to distinguish healthy cells from infected or transformed ones. This guide covers missing-self recognition, the receptor families that implement it, the CD56-bright and CD56-dim subsets that do quite different jobs, the developmental stages and their markers, and the adaptive NK cells that complicate the textbook claim that NK cells have no memory.Browse NK cell reagents →CD56 & CD16Markers defining the two subsets~90%Of blood NK cells are CD56-dimMissing selfThe core reco …

The human body is a complex and intricate system where various components work together to maintain health and combat potential threats. Among these essential players are the TNF cytokines, a superfamily of cell-signaling proteins that play a crucial role in regulating the immune system and other critical physiological processes. These cytokines, along with their corresponding receptors, form a dynamic network that orchestrates immune responses, inflammation, cell survival, and much more. In this blog post, we'll delve into the world of TNF cytokines and their receptors, exploring their structural features, functions, and the significant impact they have on our health and w …

Monocytes, as part of the innate immune system, act as the first line of defense against foreign invaders. One of their primary functions is phagocytosis, a crucial process in which they engulf and destroy various pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. This blog is an overview of monocytes including monocyte function, production, types, location in the body and related disease.   Key Takeaways: Monocytes are a key part of the innate immune system, specializing in phagocytosis and antigen presentation. Types: Classical (majority, CD14+CD16-) and non-classical (minority, CD14+CD16+). Development: Originate from monoblasts in the bone marrow, influenced by cy …

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IL-8 Overview Interleukin-8 (IL-8), also known as CXCL8, was discovered over 30 years ago as a small molecule that could promote chemotaxis and induce the production of both superoxide and hydrogen peroxide (H202) . IL-8 is now recognized as a chemokine, which are small chemoattractant molecules that are secreted by cells of the immune system. Chemokines induce integrin expression and primarily attract leukocytes to the site of infection, although their roles have been discovered to be much more diverse. 44 chemokines and 23 chemokine receptors have been identified to date. Structurally, IL-8 contains two N-terminal cysteine motifs, which classify it as a CX …

What is Neuroimmunology? Neuroimmunology is a multidisciplinary scientific field dedicated to investigating the intricate and bidirectional interactions between the central nervous system (CNS) and the immune system. It involves the rigorous study of regulatory influences and cross-talk that govern the functionality and behavior of these once-segregated systems. { "@context": "https://schema.org", "@type": "BlogPosting", "mainEntityOfPage": { "@type": "WebPage", "@id": "https://www.assaygenie.com/blog/neuroimmunology-of-the-cns" }, "headline": "Neuroimmunology: The Immune System of the CNS", "description": "The central nervous syste …

Fibroblasts, essential components of connective tissues, play vital roles in maintaining tissue structure and function. Their remarkable ability to produce and organize the extracellular matrix forms the foundation for tissue integrity and repair processes. Identifying and characterizing fibroblasts amidst complex biological environments rely on fibroblast markers, specific molecular indicators that aid researchers in distinguishing these cells. In this blog post, we delve into Fibroblast, their markers and their significance in cancers. fibroblast markers in research, their potential applications in disease investigation, and their implications in regenerative medicine and therapeutic …

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This article breaks down the glycoprotein Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) detailing its structure, function and therapeutic uses. It also describes its role in immunity, inflammation and diseases such as cancer and AIDS. What are Colony Stimulating Factors? Colony stimulating factors (CSFs) are a group of glycoprotein cytokines that stimulate the production of blood cells. They are important for the treatment of cancer and other blood disorders. CSFs were first discovered in the 1960s, and since then, they have been used to treat millions of patients worldwide. There are four main t …

Immunology · Flow CytometryT Cell Immunophenotyping: Markers, Subsets and Panel DesignImmunophenotyping identifies cell populations by the proteins on their surface. For T cells that means resolving naive from memory, helper from cytotoxic, and effector from regulatory — distinctions that require the right combination of markers rather than any single one. This guide gives the marker sets for each major subset, how to combine them into a panel, and how the results are used.Browse flow antibodies →CD3The pan-T cell gating markerCD4 / CD8Helper and cytotoxic lineage splitCD45RA / RONaive versus memory discrimination5Subset marker tables in this guideKey takeawaysNo single marker defines a T ce …

Immunology · Cell IsolationPeripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMCs): Composition, Isolation and UseMononuclear cells are the leukocytes with a single, unlobed nucleus — lymphocytes and monocytes. Isolated from blood by density gradient centrifugation, they become PBMCs: the most widely used primary human immune cell preparation in research. This guide covers what a PBMC fraction contains and what it deliberately excludes, how the isolation works, the practical decisions that determine yield and viability, and how the populations are identified.Browse PBMC marker antibodies →1.077 g/mLDensity of the separation medium70–90%Lymphocyte share of PBMCs10–30%Monocyte share of PBMCs<8 hProcess …

Biomarkers · InflammationC-Reactive Protein (CRP): Structure, Function and Clinical UseCRP is the most widely measured marker of inflammation in medicine — fast to rise, fast to fall, and entirely non-specific about cause. This guide covers its pentameric structure and IL-6-driven synthesis, what it actually does in innate immunity, the reference ranges and the important distinction between standard and high-sensitivity assays, and how it is interpreted alongside procalcitonin and ESR.Browse CRP assays →1q23.2Chromosomal location of CRPPentamerFive identical ~23 kDa subunits18–24 hPlasma half-lifeIL-6Principal driver of hepatic synthesisKey takeawaysCRP is an acute-phase protein made by hepa …

Explore antigen presentation's crucial role in adaptive immunity and its impact on cancer immunotherapy, highlighting the diversity and function of MHC class I molecules. Key Takeaways Antigen presentation by MHC class I is key for adaptive immunity. Specialized cells, antigen-presenting cells (APCs), present antigens to T cells. MHC-I molecules' polymorphism enables diverse antigen presentation. Cancer immunotherapy leverages antigen presentation to target tumor cells. What is Antigen Presentation? Our immune system has various mechanisms to defend against pathogens, with adaptive immunity being a crucial component. Adaptive immunity enables our immune syst …

What is Immunometabolism? Immunometabolism is an exponentially growing, multi-disciplinary field of research aiming at deciphering the dynamic cellular and molecular mechanisms that interweave metabolic and immunological processes together. Although the term “immunometabolism” first appeared in the literature in 2011, the first studies investigating the connection between immune and metabolic disorders date back to the late 19th century. Our expanding understanding of how different immune cell functions correlate with particular metabolic configurations during homeostasis and inflammation has opened new therapeutic possibilities where the modulation of …

The immune system plays a critical role in defending the body against pathogens and maintaining tissue homeostasis. Within the intricate network of immune cells, CD11b, also known as integrin alpha M, emerges as a significant player in immunology and neuroscience. CD11b serves as a cell surface marker that aids in identifying and characterizing specific immune cell populations, particularly macrophages and microglia. Understanding the role of CD11b and its association with these cells provides valuable insights into various disease processes, immune responses, and neuroinflammatory disorders. In this blog post, we will look at the structure and function of CD11b, its significance …

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Exploring sepsis: a critical imbalance in the immune response to infection. Key Takeaways: Sepsis is a severe, immune-driven response to infection causing systemic inflammation and potential organ damage. It progresses through stages: initial sepsis, severe sepsis, and septic shock, each with increasing severity. Complications include organ failure, septic shock, ARDS, blood clots, and long-term impairments. Immune responses in sepsis vary from hypo-inflammation (weak) to hyper-inflammation (excessive). Understanding these responses is key for effective sepsis treatment and management. What is Sepsis? Sepsis is a life-threatening condition that arises when the bod …

What is Gut Inflammation? The gut, or gastrointestinal (GI) tract is a long tube that starts from the mouth and extends to the anus. It includes various organs such as the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and rectum, responsible for digestion, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of waste. The gut plays a vital role in our overall health. However, inflammation can occur within the gut, leading to various inflammatory diseases. Gut inflammation is an immune response triggered by factors such as infections or autoimmune reactions. This immune response releases molecules that cause inflammation, resulting in tissue damage. Conditions …

Immunology · ImmunophenotypingCD Markers on B Cells: Development, Subsets and ImmunophenotypingB cells change their surface marker profile at every stage from bone marrow progenitor to antibody-secreting plasma cell, and those changes are what make each stage identifiable by flow cytometry. This guide sets out the markers stage by stage and subset by subset, explains the two that matter most in practice — CD19 and CD20 — and covers the gating strategy and controls that make the readout trustworthy.Browse B cell markers →CD19Pan-B, retained into plasma cellsCD20Lost on plasma cellsCD27The human memory B markerCD138Plasma cell identityKey takeawaysCD19 and CD20 are not interchangeable. CD19 ap …

Immunology · Antigen PresentationDendritic Cells: Markers, Activation and SubtypesDendritic cells are the professional antigen-presenting cells that decide whether an immune response happens at all. They are also awkward to identify, because no single marker is exclusive to them — they are defined by a combination of positive markers and the absence of other lineages. This guide covers the markers that actually work, how activation and cross-presentation function, and the real subsets, including which cells share the name without sharing the lineage.Browse DC marker antibodies →cDC1 / cDC2 / pDCThe main human subsetsCD11c & HLA-DRThe core conventional DC gateType I IFNPlasmacytoid DC sig …