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Introduction T lymphocytes are type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the immune system. There are many different types of T cells, and it is important to be able to distinguish them accurately in order to study their function. Immunophenotyping is the process of identifying and classifying these different types of T lymphocytes. In this guide, we will discuss the different markers that are used to identify T cells, as well as how to sort them using flow cytometry. We will also look at the different helper T cell subsets and their activation markers. By understanding the basics of immunophenotyping, you can effectively diagnose and treat immune-related diseases …

Mononuclear cells, as the name suggests, refer to a group of white blood cells characterized by the presence of a single nucleus. Understanding the nature, function, and significance of mononuclear cells is essential for comprehending the complex workings of our immune system and overall health. Throughout this article, we will explore the definition of mononuclear cells, examine their functions in different biological contexts, discuss their presence in blood and bone marrow, and highlight their clinical implications. Additionally, we will dive into the world of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and their role in immunology and research. Table …

Explore antigen presentation's crucial role in adaptive immunity and its impact on cancer immunotherapy, highlighting the diversity and function of MHC class I molecules. Key Takeaways Antigen presentation by MHC class I is key for adaptive immunity. Specialized cells, antigen-presenting cells (APCs), present antigens to T cells. MHC-I molecules' polymorphism enables diverse antigen presentation. Cancer immunotherapy leverages antigen presentation to target tumor cells. What is Antigen Presentation? Our immune system has various mechanisms to defend against pathogens, with adaptive immunity being a crucial component. Adaptive immunity enables our immune syst …

Delve into the world of C-reactive protein (CRP), a critical player in the body's response to inflammation, and understand its role in health and disease. Key Takeaways C-reactive protein (CRP) is a marker of inflammation, increasing in response to infection, injury, or tissue damage. Produced by the liver, it's regulated by IL-6 and involved in immune responses. CRP's functions include pathogen recognition, opsonization, activating the complement system, and modulating inflammation. Used as a diagnostic biomarker, CRP levels help assess inflammation and cardiovascular risk. Elevated CRP levels are associated with various conditions, including infections, autoimmune dis …

What is Immunometabolism? Immunometabolism is an exponentially growing, multi-disciplinary field of research aiming at deciphering the dynamic cellular and molecular mechanisms that interweave metabolic and immunological processes together. Although the term “immunometabolism” first appeared in the literature in 2011, the first studies investigating the connection between immune and metabolic disorders date back to the late 19th century. Our expanding understanding of how different immune cell functions correlate with particular metabolic configurations during homeostasis and inflammation has opened new therapeutic possibilities where the modulation of …

The immune system plays a critical role in defending the body against pathogens and maintaining tissue homeostasis. Within the intricate network of immune cells, CD11b, also known as integrin alpha M, emerges as a significant player in immunology and neuroscience. CD11b serves as a cell surface marker that aids in identifying and characterizing specific immune cell populations, particularly macrophages and microglia. Understanding the role of CD11b and its association with these cells provides valuable insights into various disease processes, immune responses, and neuroinflammatory disorders. In this blog post, we will look at the structure and function of CD11b, its significance …

As a vital component of the immune system, the Alternative Complement Pathway plays a crucial role in defending the body against pathogens and maintaining immune homeostasis. In this blog, we will explore the underlying mechanisms of its activation, examine the key components involved, and shed light on its intricate biological functions. Key Takeaways: The Alternative Complement Pathway is crucial for immune defense, activating spontaneously or in response to pathogens. It contributes to inflammation, opsonization, and the clearance of immune complexes. Regulated by proteins like factor H and I to prevent damage to healthy cells. Dysregulation of this pathway is linked …

Exploring sepsis: a critical imbalance in the immune response to infection. Key Takeaways: Sepsis is a severe, immune-driven response to infection causing systemic inflammation and potential organ damage. It progresses through stages: initial sepsis, severe sepsis, and septic shock, each with increasing severity. Complications include organ failure, septic shock, ARDS, blood clots, and long-term impairments. Immune responses in sepsis vary from hypo-inflammation (weak) to hyper-inflammation (excessive). Understanding these responses is key for effective sepsis treatment and management. What is Sepsis? Sepsis is a life-threatening condition that arises when the bod …

What is Gut Inflammation? The gut, or gastrointestinal (GI) tract is a long tube that starts from the mouth and extends to the anus. It includes various organs such as the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and rectum, responsible for digestion, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of waste. The gut plays a vital role in our overall health. However, inflammation can occur within the gut, leading to various inflammatory diseases. Gut inflammation is an immune response triggered by factors such as infections or autoimmune reactions. This immune response releases molecules that cause inflammation, resulting in tissue damage. Conditions …

Exploring the realm of B cells, this piece delves into the intricacies of these white blood cells, pivotal in humoral immunity. Through the lens of CD markers and immunophenotyping, we unravel the diversity of B cells, their antibody production, and their profound impact on immune responses. Key Takeaways: B cells, vital in adaptive immunity, are characterized by CD markers and immunophenotyping, crucial for understanding their heterogeneity and immune roles. Immunophenotyping, using flow cytometry, identifies B cell subsets through CD markers, essential for studying B cell development, activation, and disease associations. CD markers on B cells vary across differe …

Exploring the multifaceted role of dendritic cells in immune function and disease. Key Takeaways DCs are professional antigen-presenting cells that capture, process, and present antigens. They activate T cells and regulate immune responses by producing cytokines. DC markers help distinguish them from other cells. Different DC subtypes exist, each with unique functions. DCs play a vital role in immune surveillance and maintaining self-tolerance. They are involved in autoimmune diseases and cancer, both as protective and harmful factors. DCs have a crucial role in the development and regulation of immune responses. What is a Dendritic Cell? Dendrit …

In the field of immunology and biomedical research, antibodies play a crucial role in identifying and targeting foreign substances in the body. However, not all antibodies are the same. In this blog, we will explore the key differences between polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies, examining their production, characteristics, and implications in diagnostics, therapeutics, and research. Key Takeaways Antibodies are essential in identifying and targeting foreign substances, with specificity governed by the lock-and-key mechanism. Monoclonal antibodies are highly specific, derived from a single cell clone, and utilized in targeted therapies and diagnostics. Polyclonal anti …

Discover the critical role of cytokines as signaling molecules in immune responses, their functions, and the impact of their dysregulation, including cytokine storms. Key Takeaways: Cytokines are crucial immune system proteins regulating immune responses. Dysregulated cytokines can lead to cytokine storms, causing severe immune reactions. Cytokine storms are treated with immunosuppressives and are common in severe infections like COVID-19. Prevention includes vaccination and managing underlying health conditions. What are Cytokines? Cytokines are a diverse group of small proteins that serve as key signaling molecules in the immune system. Produced by various cells …

Delving into TNF alpha's critical role in inflammation and its therapeutic targeting. Key Takeaways: TNF alpha is a crucial cytokine in inflammation and apoptosis. Its structure facilitates interaction with TNF receptors, influencing immune responses. Elevated TNF alpha levels are linked to various inflammatory diseases. TNF alpha activates distinct pathways through TNFR1 and TNFR2, impacting cell function. Its involvement in diseases like rheumatoid arthritis and psoriasis highlights its clinical significance. Therapeutic targeting of TNF alpha offers potential in treating inflammatory conditions and cancer. What is TNF alpha? Tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha) i …

Enhancing Cancer Research: Syngeneic Mouse Models and Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors A quick guide to Syngeneic Mouse Models Syngeneic Mouse Models Cancer research has seen remarkable advancements in recent years, largely due to the development of novel therapeutic approaches such as immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). Among the various preclinical models used in cancer research, syngeneic mouse models have emerged as indispensable tools for studying the tumor microenvironment and evaluating immunotherapeutic strategies. In this article, we will delve into the significance of syngeneic mouse models in cancer research, particularly focusing on their role in the study o …

ILC2 - Function, Cytokines, and Role in Health and Disease A quick guide to IL2C Our immune system is composed of various types of cells that work together to protect us from harmful pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria. One type of immune cell that has recently gained attention is the innate lymphoid cell type 2 (ILC2). ILC2s are a type of white blood cell that play a critical role in protecting us against infections and allergies. In this article, we will explore what ILC2s …

Nod-like receptors Nod like receptors (NLRs) are a versatile family of relatively recently discovered intracellular receptors which have a broad range of functions in humans, ranging from the regulation of antigen presentation and modulation of inflammation to embryonic development and sensing cellular metabolic changes (Motta et al 2015). Evolutionarily, NLRs are well conserved and orthologs are found across much of the animal kingdom (Lange et al 2011). The NLR family in humans is relatively diverse, comprising of 22 members with specific functions dependent on ligand specificity and effector functions, each determined by individu …

T Cell Types, Activation, Polarization & Function A comprehensive guide to T cells! window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_ELEMENTS = window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_ELEMENTS || new Array(); window.SHOGUN_IMAGE_ELEMENTS.push({ uuid: 's-97bbabca-f192-454c-a1c7-98716f6875bf' }) Introduction T-cells, vital components of the immune system, encompass various functions and types, including cytotoxic T cells, helper T cells, and regulatory T cells. Their activation and polarization play critical roles in immune responses. Understanding T-cell biology is essential for effective immune defense and therapeutic applications. Key Takeaways T-cells have d …

Mouse monoclonal antibodies are a valuable tool in the biomedical field. They can be used for a variety of applications, from research to clinical diagnostics. In this blog post, we will discuss the basics of mouse monoclonal antibody production, including its protocol and application. The major difference between monoclonal antibodies and polyclonal antibodies is that monoclonal antibodies can have a single-specificity, meaning they only bind to the same epitope while polyclonal antibodies can bind to multiple epitopes and are generally synthesized by several different plasma cell lineages. Bispecific monoclonal antibodies can also be developed by wedging two epitopes from …

What is CD52? Cluster Of Differentiation 52 (CD52) is a highly expressed membrane glycoprotein which is present on the surface of immune cells such as lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils and dendritic cells. The proliferation of CD52 markers enables researchers to distinguish between healthy and cancerous cells in the medical field. The peptide length of CD52 is 12 amino acid which is anchored to glycosylphosphatidylinositol. As a result of its negative charge researchers believe this molecule has an anti-adhesion function, allowing cells to migrate freely. It is known that CD52 binds with the immunoreceptor tyrosine based inhibitory …

What is CD31? CD31, also known as PECAM-1, was originally described as a cell surface antigen present on platelets and megakaryocytes. CD31 is a member of transmembrane glycoproteins expressed on cells of all lineages within the vascular system. CD31 antigen belongs to PECAM proteins that are now recognized as belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily because they contain large numbers of extracellular immunoglobulin domains with conserved C2-type calcium binding sites. Where is CD31 expressed and what does it bind to? CD31 is expressed on CD34+ hematopoietic stem cells, CD14+ monocyt …

What are MHC Class I molecules? The MHC class I is a glycoprotein that is expressed on all nucleated cells of the human body. MHC class I are important in disease defense against viruses, bacteria, parasites and neoplasms. MHC class I facilitates the presentation of peptides of 8-10 amino acids in length to cytotoxic T cells. MHC class I has two transmembrane proteins, HLA-A, HLA-B and HLA-C. MHC class I is produced in MHC class I gene clusters. MHC class I are encoded by HLA-A, HLA-B and HLA-C. Key Takeaways MHC Class I molecules present peptides to cytotoxic T cells and are found on all nucleated cells. MHC Class II molecules are crucial for antigen presentation …

Antibodies are a special class of Y shaped proteins that help guard your body from invading viruses and bacteria. They do this by either neutralizing the dangerous substance or marking it for destruction. Five classes of antibodies There are five antibody types called IgA, IgG, IgM, IgE and IgD. Each antibody type is made up of two heavy chains and two light chains also known as an 'immunoglobulin'. Every antibody has a unique tip on its end known as the paratope which contains the key to fighting against invaders which could be a virus or bacterium. The middle section of the antibody is called the constant region which att …

Antigen's are foreign molecules recognised by the immune system. Antigens can be protein, carbohydrate, lipid or nucleic acid molecules. Examples include viruses and bacteria as well as fragments of human cells such as those infected by a virus or damaged by radiation or oxidants. Antigens also include artificial substances such as drugs and other xenobiotics (chemicals not normally capable of being taken up by living systems). Antigens are associated with different types of MHC molecule on the surface of cells which allows them to be identified by T lymphocytes. Antibodies are Y shaped molecules than bind Antigens Antibodies are Y shaped prot …